The Penal Pyramid
In this chapter, Alexandra Natapoff conceptualizes the criminal system as a “pyramid” in order to capture how formal rules sometimes determine processes and outcomes while often social factors such as race and class are more influential. The top of the pyramid represents serious felonies, the federal system, wealthy defendants, and the relatively small class of cases governed by a reasonably functional rule of law. By contrast, further down the pyramid, cases get pettier, defendants poorer, and counsel more burdened. By the time we reach the massive bottom—the realm of petty offenses and assembly-line courts—race, class, police arrest policies, and prosecutorial plea-bargaining habits best explain criminal outcomes and procedures. The chapter traces this dynamic to concrete doctrinal and policy choices. As Natapoff writes, “the pyramid . . . illustrates a profound feature of the penal system: sometimes criminal convictions can fairly be justified as a product of law and evidence, while sometimes they are better understood as a product of institutional practices and inegalitarian social relations.”