Three-Dimensional Simulation of Steamflooding

1974 ◽  
Vol 14 (06) ◽  
pp. 573-592 ◽  
Author(s):  
K.H. Coats ◽  
W.D. George ◽  
Chieh Chu ◽  
B.E. Marcum
Keyword(s):  
Experimental Data ◽  
Heat Flow ◽  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Additional Data ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Pressure Level ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Method Of Solution ◽  
Steam Stimulation

Coats, K.H., Member SPE-AIME, Intercomp Resource Development and Engineering, Inc., Houston, Texas George, W.D., Chu, Chieh, Member SPE-AIME, Getty Oil Co., Houston, Tx. Marcum, B.E., Member SPE-AIME, Getty Oil Co., Los Angeles, Calif. Abstract This paper describes a three-dimensional model for numerical simulation of steam injection processes. The model describes three-phase flow processes. The model describes three-phase flow of water, oil, and steam and heat flow in the reservoir and overburden. The method of solution simultaneously solves for the mass and energy balances and eliminates the need for iterating on the mass transfer (condensation) term.Laboratory data are reported for steamfloods of 5,780-cp oil in a 1/4 five-spot sand pack exhibiting three-dimensional flow effects. These experiments provide additional data for checking accuracy and provide additional data for checking accuracy and assumptions in numerical models. Comparisons of model results with several sets of experimental data indicate a need to account for effects of temperature on relative permeability. Calculated areal conformance of a steamflood in a confined five-spot depends strongly upon the alignment of the x-y grid axes relative to the diagonal joining injection and production wells. It has not been determined which, if either, of the two grid types yields the correct areal conformance.Model calculations indicate that steamflood pressure level strongly affects oil recovery. pressure level strongly affects oil recovery. Calculated oil recovery increases with decreasing pressure level. An example application illustrates pressure level. An example application illustrates the ability of the model formulation to efficiently simulate the single-well, cyclic steam stimulation problem. problem Introduction The literature includes many papers treating various aspects of oil recovery by steamflooding, hot waterflooding, and steam stimulation. The papers present laboratory experimental data, field papers present laboratory experimental data, field performance results, models for calculating fluid performance results, models for calculating fluid and heat flow, and experimental data regarding effects of temperature on relative permeability. The ultimate goal of all this work is a reliable engineering analysis to estimate oil recovery for a given mode of operation and to determine alternative operating conditions to maximize oil recovery.Toward that end, our study proposed to develop and validate an efficient, three-dimensional numerical model for simulating steamflooding, hot waterflooding, and steam stimulation. Laboratory steamflood experiments were conducted to provide additional data for validation. Desired model specifications included three-dimensional capability and greater efficiency than reported for previous models. Omitted from the specifications were temperature-dependent relative permeability and steam distillation effects.This paper describes the main features of the three-dimensional, steamflood model developed. Those features include a new method of solution that includes implicit water transmissibilities, that simultaneously solves for mass and energy balances, and that eliminates the need for iteration on the condensation term. Laboratory data are reported for steamfloods in a 1/4 five-spot model exhibiting three-dimensional flow effects. Numerical model applications described include comparisons with experimental data, a representative field-scale steamflood, and a cyclic steam stimulation example. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK Early efforts in mathematical modeling of thermal methods concentrated on simulation of the heat flow and heat loss. Gottfried, in his analysis of in-situ combustion, initiated a series of models that solve fluid mass balances along with the energy balance. Davidson et al. presented an analysis for well performance during cyclic steam injection. Spillette and Nielsen treated hot waterflooding in two dimensions. Shutler described three-phase models for linears and two-dimensional steamflooding, and Abdalla and Coats treated a two-dimensional steamflood model using the IMPES method of solution. SPEJ P. 573

Key characteristics of three-phase oil relative permeability formulations for improved oil recovery predictions

1999 ◽  
Vol 5 (4) ◽  
pp. 339-346 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. F. Balbinski ◽  
T. P. Fishlock ◽  
S. G. Goodyear ◽  
P. I. R. Jones
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Improved Oil Recovery ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Key Characteristics

An Improved Three-Phase Relative Permeability and Hysteresis Model for the Simulation of a Water-Alternating-Gas Injection

SPE Journal ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 18 (05) ◽  
pp. 841-850 ◽  
Author(s):  
H.. Shahverdi ◽  
M.. Sohrabi
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Gas Injection ◽  
Phase Flow ◽  
Relative Permeabilities ◽  
Water Alternating Gas ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Three Phase Flow ◽  
Oil Water ◽  
Wag Injection

Summary Water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection in waterflooded reservoirs can increase oil recovery and extend the life of these reservoirs. Reliable reservoir simulations are needed to predict the performance of WAG injection before field implementation. This requires accurate sets of relative permeability (kr) and capillary pressure (Pc) functions for each fluid phase, in a three-phase-flow regime. The WAG process also involves another major complication, hysteresis, which is caused by flow reversal happening during WAG injection. Hysteresis is one of the most important phenomena manipulating the performance of WAG injection, and hence, it has to be carefully accounted for. In this study, we have benefited from the results of a series of coreflood experiments that we have been performing since 1997 as a part of the Characterization of Three-Phase Flow and WAG Injection JIP (joint industry project) at Heriot-Watt University. In particular, we focus on a WAG experiment carried out on a water-wet core to obtain three-phase relative permeability values for oil, water, and gas. The relative permeabilities exhibit significant and irreversible hysteresis for oil, water, and gas. The observed hysteresis, which is a result of the cyclic injection of water and gas during WAG injection, is not predicted by the existing hysteresis models. We present a new three-phase relative permeability model coupled with hysteresis effects for the modeling of the observed cycle-dependent relative permeabilities taking place during WAG injection. The approach has been successfully tested and verified with measured three-phase relative permeability values obtained from a WAG experiment. In line with our laboratory observations, the new model predicts the reduction of the gas relative permeability during consecutive water-and-gas-injection cycles as well as the increase in oil relative permeability happening in consecutive water-injection cycles.

An Experimental Investigation of Viscous-Oil Recovery Efficiency as a Function of Voidage-Replacement Ratio

SPE Journal ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 21 (04) ◽  
pp. 1236-1253 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tae Wook Kim ◽  
E.. Vittoratos ◽  
A. R. Kovscek
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Crude Oils ◽  
Replacement Ratio ◽  
Two Phase ◽  
Foamy Oil ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Solution Gas Drive ◽  
Gas Drive ◽  
Solution Gas

Summary Recovery processes with a voidage-replacement ratio (VRR) (VRR = injected volume/produced volume) of unity rely solely on viscous forces to displace oil, whereas a VRR of zero relies on solution-gas drive. Activating a solution-gas-drive mechanism in combination with waterflooding with periods of VRR less than unity (VRR < 1) may be optimal for recovery. Laboratory evidence suggests that recovery for VRR < 1 is enhanced by emulsion flow and foamy (i.e., bubbly) crude oil at pressures under bubblepoint for some crude oils. This paper investigates the effect of VRR for two crude oils referred to as A1 (88 cp and 6.2 wt% asphaltene) and A2 (600 cp and 2.5 wt% asphaltene) in a sandpack system (18-in. length and 2-in. diameter). The crude oils are characterized with viscosity, asphaltene fraction, and acid/base numbers. A high-pressure experimental sandpack system (1 darcy and Swi = 0) was used to conduct experiments with VRRs of 1.0, 0.7, and 0 for both oils. During waterflood experiments, we controlled and monitored the rate of fluid injection and production to obtain well-characterized VRR. On the basis of the production ratio of fluids, the gas/oil and /water relative permeabilities were estimated under two-phase-flow conditions. For a VRR of zero, the gas relative permeability of both oils exhibited extremely low values (10−6−10−4) caused by internal gas drive. Waterfloods with VRR < 1 displayed encouraging recovery results. In particular, the final oil recovery with VRR = 0.7 [66.2% original oil in place (OOIP)] is more than 15% greater than that with VRR = 1 (55.6% OOIP) with A1 crude oil. Recovery for A2 with VRR = 0.7 (60.5% OOIP) was identical to the sum of oil recovery for solution-gas drive (19.1% OOIP) plus waterflooding (40.1% OOIP). An in-line viewing cell permitted inspection of produced fluid morphology. For A1 and VRR = 0.7, produced oil was emulsified, and gas was dispersed as bubbles, as expected for a foamy oil. For A2 and VRR < 1, foamy oil was not clearly observed in the viewing cell. In all cases, the water cut of VRR = 1 is clearly greater than that of VRR = 0.7. Finally, three-phase relative permeability was explored on the basis of the experimentally determined two-phase oil/water and liquid/gas relative permeability curves. Well-known algorithms for three-phase relative permeability, however, did not result in good history matches to the experimental data. Numerical simulations matched the experimental recovery vs. production time acceptably after modification of the measured krg and krow relationships. A concave shape for oil relative permeability that is suggestive of emulsified oil in situ was noted for both systems. The degree of agreement with experimental data is sensitive to the details of gas (gas/oil system) and oil (oil/water system) mobility.

Novel Three-Phase Compositional Relative Permeability and Three-Phase Hysteresis Models

SPE Journal ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 20 (01) ◽  
pp. 21-34 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mohammad R. Beygi ◽  
Mojdeh Delshad ◽  
Venkateswaran S. Pudugramam ◽  
Gary A. Pope ◽  
Mary F. Wheeler
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Co2 Storage ◽  
Carbonate Reservoir ◽  
Mobility Control ◽  
Hysteresis Model ◽  
Permeability Model ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Trapping Model ◽  
Wet Rocks

Summary Mobility-control methods have the potential to improve coupled enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and carbon dioxide (CO2) storage technique (CO2-EOR). There is a need for improved three-phase relative permeability models with hysteresis, especially including the effects of cycle dependency so that more-accurate predictions of these methods can be made. We propose new three-phase relative permeability and three-phase hysteresis models applicable to different fluid configurations in a porous medium under different wettability conditions. The relative permeability model includes both the saturation history and compositional effects. Three-phase parameters are estimated on the basis of saturation-weighted interpolation of two-phase parameters. The hysteresis model is an extension of the Land trapping model (Land 1968) but with a dynamic Land coefficient introduced. The trapping model estimates a constantly increasing trapped saturation for intermediate-wetting and nonwetting phases. The hysteresis model overcomes some of the limitations of existing three-phase hysteresis models for nonwater-wet rocks and mitigates the complexity associated with commonly applied models in numerical simulators. The relative permeability model is validated by use of multicyclic three-phase water-alternating-gas experimental data for nonwater-wet rocks. Numerical simulations of a carbonate reservoir with and without hysteresis were used to assess the effect of the saturation direction and saturation path on gas entrapment and oil recovery.

Experimental Investigation of Near-Miscible Water-Alternating-Gas Injection Performance in Water-Wet and Mixed-Wet Systems

SPE Journal ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 18 (01) ◽  
pp. 114-123 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. Mobeen Fatemi ◽  
Mehran Sohrabi
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Gas Injection ◽  
Water Injection ◽  
Laboratory Data ◽  
Co2 Injection ◽  
Water Alternating Gas ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Wag Injection

Summary Laboratory data on water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection for non-water-wet systems are very limited, especially for near-miscible (very low IFT) gas/oil systems, which represent injection scenarios involving high-pressure hydrocarbon gas or CO2 injection. Simulation of these processes requires three-phase relative permeability (kr) data. Most of the existing three-phase relative permeability correlations have been developed for water-wet conditions. However, a majority of oil reservoirs are believed to be mixed-wet and, hence, prediction of the performance of WAG injection in these reservoirs is associated with significant uncertainties. Reliable simulation of WAG injection, therefore, requires improved relative permeability and hysteresis models validated by reliable measured data. In this paper, we report the results of a comprehensive series of coreflood experiments carried out in a core under natural water-wet conditions. These included water injection, gas injection, and also WAG injection. Then, to investigate the impact of wettability on the performance of these injection strategies, the wettability of the same core was changed to mixed-wet (by aging the core in an appropriate crude oil) and a similar set of experiments were performed in the mixed-wet core. WAG experiments under both wettability conditions started with water injection (I) followed by gas injection (D), and this cyclic injection of water and gas was repeated (IDIDID). The results show that in both the water-wet and mixed-wet cores, WAG injection performs better than water injection or gas injection alone. Changing the rock wettability from water-wet to mixed-wet significantly improves the performance of water injection. Under both wettability conditions (water-wet and mixed-wet), the breakthrough (BT) of the gas during gas injection happens sooner than the BT of water in water injection. Ultimate oil recovery by gas injection is considerably higher than that obtained by water injection in the water-wet system, while in the mixed-wet system, gas injection recovers considerably less oil.

Three Phase Flow Simulations of an Oil Recovery Ship in Various Sea States

2007 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gu¨nther F. Clauss ◽  
Florian Sprenger ◽  
Sascha Kosleck ◽  
Robert Stu¨ck
Keyword(s):  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Separation Process ◽  
Phase Flow ◽  
Water Separation ◽  
Flow Simulations ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Three Phase Flow ◽  
Oil Water Separation ◽  
Oil Water

The analysis of local flow phenomena, in particular the analysis of the oil flow and the oil-water separation process in a three phase flow simulation (air, water, oil), including the free water surface, is a basic need for the development of an efficient oil recovery system such as the Seaway Independent Oilskimming System (SOS). As the oil separation process is highly dependent on the ships motions, its seakeeping behaviour needs to be simulated accurately. The paper presents two-phase flow simulations (air, water) of the seakeeping behaviour in three and six degrees of freedom (two- and three-dimensional — 2D/3D). The vessel motions simulated in various sea states are validated by model tests conducted in a physical wave tank. The grid resolution as well as the flow parameters of the simulation have been varied to find a fast and reliable solution. The need for three dimensional simulation runs is questioned, as two dimensional simulations give nearly the same results and are far less time intensive. Oil is introduced as the third phase. The associated analysis illustrates the oil-water separation process and yields the systems efficiency in dependency of the sea state conditions. Based on the results of three-phase simulations, the operational range of the Seaway Independent Oilskimmer is determined and recommendations for the system optimization can be made.

Sandstone and Carbonate Two- and Three-Phase Relative Permeability Characteristics

1970 ◽  
Vol 10 (01) ◽  
pp. 75-84 ◽  
Author(s):  
F.N. Schneider ◽  
W.W. Owens
Keyword(s):  
Relative Permeability ◽  
Oil Recovery ◽  
Flow Behavior ◽  
Water Injection ◽  
Phase System ◽  
Phase Flow ◽  
Two Phase ◽  
Permeability Characteristics ◽  
Three Phase ◽  
Three Phase Flow

Abstract Three-phase relative permeability characteristics applicable to various oil displacement processes in the reservoir such as combustion and alternate gas-water injection were determined on both outcrop and reservoir core samples. Steady-state and nonsteady-state tests were performed on a variety of sandstone and carbonate core samples having different wetting properties. Some of the tests were performed on preserved samples. Some of the three-phase tests were performed on samples that contained two flowing phases and a third nonflowing phase, either gas or oil. These were classed as three-phase flow tests because the third phase played an important role in the flow behavior which was determined. The three-phase relative permeability test results are directly compared with the results of two-phase gas-oil and water-oil test. Wetting-phase relative permeability was found to be primarily dependent on its own saturation, i.e., relative permeability to the wetting phase during three-phase flow was in agreement with and could be predicted from the tow-phase data. Nonwetting-phase relative permeability-saturation relationships were found to be more complex and to depend in some cases on the saturation history of both nonwetting phases and on the saturation ratio of the second nonwetting phase and the wetting phases. Trapping of a given nonwetting phase or mutual flow interference between the two nonwetting phases when both are flowing accounts for most of the low relative permeabilities observed for three-phase flow tests. However, in special cases nonwetting-phase relative permeabilities at a given saturation are higher than those given by two-phase flow data. Despite these complexities some types of three-phase flow behavior can be predicted from two-phase flow data. Through its effect on the spatial distribution of the phases, wettability is shown to be a controlling factor in determining three-phase relative permeability characteristics. however, despite the importance of wettability the present data shown that for both water-wet and oil-wet systems oil recovery can be improved by several different injection processes, but the additional oil recovery is accompanied by lower fluid mobility. Introduction The increasing emphasis on optimizing recovery and the rapid and extensive development and use of mathematical modes for predicting reservoir performance are together creating a widespread need for reliable basic data on rock flow behavior. The two-phase imbibition or drainage flow relationships common to conventional oil recovery processes (depletion, gas or water injection, gravity drainage) are not applicable to some of the newer secondary and tertiary recovery techniques. This is because the reservoir displacement process may differ from that easily simulated in laboratory relative permeability studies. in some situations, data are needed fro a three-phase system where almost any combination of two fluids or even all three fluids may be flowing. In other, however, only two flowing phases are present, but the saturation history of the system is unique. Leverett and Lewis were the first to collect experimental relative permeability data on a three-phase system. Corey et al. were similarly leaders in efforts to define three-phase flow relationships using empirical approaches. Space does not permit a critical review of these earlier works. For those interested, a recent article by Saraf and Fatt provides a brief discussion of the experimental techniques used by earlier investigators. Suffice it to say that both experimental and empirical approaches have been used, but the applicability of both has been limited because in only one case have three-phase relative permeability data been obtained on reservoir rock material. SPEJ P. 75ˆ

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