Inhibitory Control Training Reveals a Common Neurofunctional Basis for Generic Executive Functions and Language Switching in Bilinguals

Abstract Background: The neural networks underpinning language control and domain-general executive functions overlap in bilinguals, but existing evidence is mainly correlative. Here, we present the first neurofunctional evidence for a transfer effect between (domain-general) inhibitory control and language control through training. We trained Chinese-English bilinguals for 8 days using a Simon task taxing the inhibitory control system, whilst an active control group was trained with a color judgment task that does not tax the inhibitory control system. All participants performed a language-switching task before and after training.Results: The results showed a negative correlation between changes in activation levels in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and changes in the switch cost magnitude in the language-switching task in the training group but not in the control group, suggesting that the DLPFC plays a critical role in the transfer effect from domain-general executive functions to language control. However, there was no measurable effect in the anterior cingulate cortex or left caudate nucleus, suggesting that the inhibitory control training increased the neural efficiency for language production in bilinguals in terms of attention shifting and conflict resolution, but the training did not affect conflict detection and lexical selection.Conclusion: These findings showed how cognitive training evidence can help establish a causational link between the neural basis of domain-general executive functions and language control in bilinguals.

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Inhibitory control training reveals a common neurofunctional basis for generic executive functions and language switching in bilinguals

BMC Neuroscience ◽

10.1186/s12868-021-00640-5 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 22 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Yan Jing Wu ◽

Mo Chen ◽

Guillaume Thierry ◽

Yongben Fu ◽

Junjie Wu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Control System ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Transfer Effect ◽

Control Group ◽

Lexical Selection ◽

Language Switching ◽

Left Caudate ◽

Language Control ◽

Switching Task

Abstract Background The neural networks underpinning language control and domain-general executive functions overlap in bilinguals, but existing evidence is mainly correlative. Here, we present the first neurofunctional evidence for a transfer effect between (domain-general) inhibitory control and language control through training. We trained Chinese–English bilinguals for 8 days using a Simon task taxing the inhibitory control system, whilst an active control group was trained with a color judgment task that does not tax the inhibitory control system. All participants performed a language-switching task before and after training. It has been suggested that the activity of the left DLPFC was associated with domain-general top-down cognitive control (Macdonald et al. Science 288: 1835–1838, 2000) and bilingual language control (Wang et al. Neuroimage 35: 862–870, 2007). In addition, the dACC was closely related to the conflict detection (Abutalebi et al. Cereb Cortex 18:1496–1505, 2008). Last, the activity of the left caudate has been linked with lexical selection (Abutalebi et al. Cereb Cortex 18:1496–1505, 2008), especially the selection of the weak language (Abutalebi et al. Cortex 49: 905–911, 2013). Therefore, we focused on these three regions of interest (ROIs) where neural changes associated with transfer were expected to occur. Results The results showed a negative correlation between changes in activation levels in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and changes in the switch cost magnitude in the language-switching task in the training group but not in the control group, suggesting that the DLPFC plays a critical role in the transfer effect from domain-general executive functions to language control. However, there was no measurable effect in the anterior cingulate cortex or left caudate nucleus, suggesting that the inhibitory control training increased the neural efficiency for language production in bilinguals in terms of attention shifting and conflict resolution, but the training did not affect conflict detection and lexical selection. Conclusion These findings showed how cognitive training evidence can help establish a causational link between the neural basis of domain-general executive functions and language control in bilinguals.

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The Differential Role of Executive Functions in the Cognitive Control of Language Switching

Languages ◽

10.3390/languages5020019 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (2) ◽

pp. 19

Author(s):

Jared A. Linck ◽

John W. Schwieter ◽

Gretchen Sunderman

Keyword(s):

Working Memory ◽

Cognitive Control ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Speech Production ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Language Production ◽

Language Switching ◽

Switch Costs ◽

Language Control ◽

Global And Local

Studies of bilingual speech production suggest that different executive functions (EFs) contribute to the cognitive control of language production. However, no study has simultaneously examined the relationship between different EFs and language control during online speech production. The current study examined individual differences in three EFs (working memory updating, inhibitory control, and task-set switching) and their relationship with performance in a trilingual language-switching task for a group of forty-seven native English (L1) speakers learning French (L2) and Spanish (L3). Analyses indicate complex interactions between EFs and language switching: better inhibitory control was related to smaller L1 switch costs, whereas better working memory was related to larger L1 switch costs. Working memory was also related to larger L2 switch costs, but only when switching from L1. These results support theories of cognitive control that implicate both global and local control mechanisms, and suggest unique contributions of each EF to both global and local cognitive control during language switching. Finally, we discuss the implications for theories of multilingual language control.

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Symmetries of bilingual language switch costs in conflicting versus non-conflicting contexts

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s1366728918000494 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 22 (3) ◽

pp. 624-636 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

CONG LIU ◽

LU JIAO ◽

ZIYI WANG ◽

MENGXING WANG ◽

RUIMING WANG ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Control ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Context Effects ◽

Control Model ◽

Language Switching ◽

Switch Costs ◽

Stroop Paradigm ◽

Language Control ◽

Switching Task ◽

The Impact

Previous studies have demonstrated that language switching in bilinguals can be affected by a number of variables, including the processing context. Here, we used a modified language-switching task combined with a Stroop paradigm, which manipulated the context of the task, to examine the impact of processing context on switch costs. The results of both Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 showed that the switch costs and the level of asymmetry in the switch costs are larger in the conflicting context than in the non-conflicting context, suggesting that the processing context affects the switch costs. In addition, the results of Experiment 2 revealed that individual variances in cognitive control capacity also play a role in the overall magnitude of the switch costs. Critically, processing context effects can be modulated by individual variance in cognitive control capacities. The results of this study are discussed within the framework of classic models of bilingual language control (e.g., the inhibitory control model).

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AChanDietary Intervention Enhances Executive Functions and Anterior Cingulate Activity in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine ◽

10.1155/2012/262136 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 2012 ◽

pp. 1-11 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

Agnes S. Chan ◽

Sophia L. Sze ◽

Yvonne M. Y. Han ◽

Mei-chun Cheung

Keyword(s):

Autism Spectrum Disorders ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Autism Spectrum ◽

Anterior Cingulate ◽

Dietary Modification ◽

Control Group ◽

Eeg Activity ◽

Children With Asd ◽

Spectrum Disorders

Executive dysfunctions have been found to be related to repetitive/disinhibited behaviors and social deficits in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). This study aims to investigate the potential effect of aShaolin-medicine-based dietary modification on improving executive functions and behavioral symptoms of ASD and exploring the possible underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. Twenty-four children with ASD were randomly assigned into the experimental (receiving dietary modification for one month) and the control (no modification) groups. Each child was assessed on his/her executive functions, behavioral problems based on parental ratings, and event-related electroencephalography (EEG) activity during a response-monitoring task before and after the one month. The experimental group demonstrated significantly improved mental flexibility and inhibitory control after the diet modification, which continued to have a large effect size within the low-functioning subgroup. Such improvements coincided with positive evaluations by their parents on social communication abilities and flexible inhibitory control of daily behaviors and significantly enhanced event-related EEG activity at the rostral and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex. In contrast, the control group did not show any significant improvements. These positive outcomes of a one-month dietary modification on children with ASD have implicated its potential clinical applicability for patients with executive function deficits.

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Shifting Gear in the Study of the Bilingual Advantage: Language Switching Examined as a Possible Moderator

Behavioral Sciences ◽

10.3390/bs9080086 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (8) ◽

pp. 86 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Evy Woumans ◽

Shauni Van Herck ◽

Esli Struys

Keyword(s):

Executive Functions ◽

Verbal Fluency ◽

Specific Aspect ◽

Language Switching ◽

Verbal Fluency Task ◽

Bilingual Advantage ◽

Switching Behaviour ◽

Switching Task ◽

Determining Factor ◽

Fluency Task

The bilingual advantage is a heavily debated topic in research on bilingualism. The current study further investigated one specific aspect of bilingualism proposed to be a determining factor for the bilingual advantage, namely language switching behaviour. We investigated whether a bilingual advantage can be detected in the executive functions of inhibition and shifting by comparing monolingual and bilingual participants on a Simon task and a colour–shape switching task. Furthermore, we examined the relation between these executive functions and language switching proficiency, as measured by a semantic verbal fluency task. In addition, the current study set out to investigate the convergence of self-reported language switching estimates and actual language switching proficiency. Results revealed a bilingual advantage for shifting, but not for inhibition. However, this bilingual advantage for shifting was not related to language switching behaviour. Additionally, we were unable to identify a relation between objective and subjective measures of switching abilities. These findings seem to confirm the existence of a bilingual advantage, but also once again validate its elusiveness, as demonstrated by the absence of bilingual benefits on our measure of inhibition. It furthermore questions the validity of switching measures employed in previous studies.

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Voluntary Language Switching in the Context of Bilingual Aphasia

Behavioral Sciences ◽

10.3390/bs10090141 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (9) ◽

pp. 141

Author(s):

Nicholas Grunden ◽

Giorgio Piazza ◽

Carmen García-Sánchez ◽

Marco Calabria

Keyword(s):

Group Performance ◽

Ecological Validity ◽

Control Group ◽

Control Mechanisms ◽

Reactive Control ◽

Language Switching ◽

Individual Level ◽

Language Control ◽

Bilingual Aphasia ◽

The Individual

As studies of bilingual language control (BLC) seek to explore the underpinnings of bilinguals’ abilities to juggle two languages, different types of language switching tasks have been used to uncover switching and mixing effects and thereby reveal what proactive and reactive control mechanisms are involved in language switching. Voluntary language switching tasks, where a bilingual participant can switch freely between their languages while naming, are being utilized more often due to their greater ecological validity compared to cued switching paradigms. Because this type of task had not yet been applied to language switching in bilingual patients, our study sought to explore voluntary switching in bilinguals with aphasia (BWAs) as well as in healthy bilinguals. In Experiment 1, we replicated previously reported results of switch costs and mixing benefits within our own bilingual population of Catalan-Spanish bilinguals. With Experiment 2, we compared both the performances of BWAs as a group and as individuals against control group performance. Results illustrated a complex picture of language control abilities, indicating varying degrees of association and dissociation between factors of BLC. Given the diversity of impairments in BWAs’ language control mechanisms, we highlight the need to examine BLC at the individual level and through the lens of theoretical cognitive control frameworks in order to further parse out how bilinguals regulate their language switching.

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Inhibitory control predicts language switching performance in trilingual speech production

Bilingualism Language and Cognition ◽

10.1017/s136672891100054x ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 15 (3) ◽

pp. 651-662 ◽

Cited By ~ 95

Author(s):

JARED A. LINCK ◽

JOHN W. SCHWIETER ◽

GRETCHEN SUNDERMAN

Keyword(s):

Speech Production ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Control Mechanism ◽

Simon Task ◽

Language Switching ◽

Switching Performance ◽

Switch Costs ◽

Switching Task ◽

The Relationship

This study investigated the role of domain-general inhibitory control in trilingual speech production. Taking an individual differences approach, we examined the relationship between performance on a non-linguistic measure of inhibitory control (the Simon task) and a multilingual language switching task for a group of fifty-six native English (L1) speakers learning French (L2) and Spanish (L3). Better inhibitory control was related to reduced switch costs, but only when switching into or out of the more dominant L1, where inhibitory control has been theorized to be most important (Green, 1998). The results provide evidence of a direct link between inhibitory control abilities and language switching capabilities, and suggest constraints on the conditions under which a domain-general inhibitory control mechanism supports language switching.

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Dynamics of inhibitory control during bilingual speech production: An electrophysiological study

10.1101/596445 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

Xiaochen Zheng ◽

Ardi Roelofs ◽

Hasan Erkan ◽

Kristin Lemhöfer

Keyword(s):

Inhibitory Control ◽

Picture Naming ◽

Electrophysiological Study ◽

Event Related Potential ◽

Target Language ◽

Language Switching ◽

Bilingual Speakers ◽

Long Run ◽

Short Run ◽

Switching Task

AbstractBilingual speakers have to control their languages to avoid interference, which may be achieved by enhancing the target language and/or inhibiting the nontarget language. Previous research has provided evidence that bilinguals may use inhibition (e.g., Jackson, Swainson, Cunnington, & Jackson, 2001), which is reflected in the N2 component of the event-related potential (ERP). In the current study, we investigated the dynamics of inhibitory control by measuring the N2 during language switching and repetition in picture naming. We recorded the EEG of 30 unbalanced Dutch-English bilinguals in a cued language-switching task. Participants had to name pictures in Dutch or English depending on the cue. A run of same-language trials could be short (two or three trials) or long (five or six trials). We assessed whether RTs and N2 changed over the course of same-language runs, and at a switch between languages. Results showed that speakers named pictures more quickly late as compared to early in a run of same-language trials. Moreover, they made a language switch more quickly after a long run than after a short run. In ERPs, we observed a widely distributed switch effect in the N2, which was larger after a short run than after a long run. The N2 was not modulated during a same-language run, challenging Kleinman and Gollan (2018), who maintained that inhibition accumulates over time. Our results suggests that speakers adjust the level of inhibitory control at a language switch, but not when repeatedly naming in the same language.

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Exercise for Cognitive Improvement and Rehabilitation (EXCIR) Improves Attention and Executive Functions in Children with ADHD

10.21203/rs.3.rs-64920/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Vahid Nejati

Keyword(s):

Selective Attention ◽

Executive Functions ◽

Inhibitory Control ◽

Cognitive Flexibility ◽

Sustained Attention ◽

Cognitive Rehabilitation ◽

Control Group ◽

Children With Adhd ◽

Cognitive Improvement ◽

Experimental Group

Abstract Background: Physical activities improves cognitive functioning. The purpose of the present study is to effect of physical activity with progressive cognitive demands on attention and executive functions in children with ADHD. Methods: Thirty children with ADHD were randomly assigned into two equal experimental and control groups. The experimental group received 12 sessions of exercise for cognitive improvement and rehabilitation (EXCIR). Working memory, selective attention, sustained attention, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility were administered pre- and post-intervention through 1-back test, Stroop test, attention registration test, go no go test and trial making test in order. The repeated measure ANOVAs were used for analysis.Results: The results showed that experimental group has a greater performance in selective attention, sustained attention, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility compared to control group. Conclusions: These findings implicate that the cognitive rehabilitation program is advantageous for improvement of attention and executive functions in children with ADHD.

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Role of top-down language control in bilingual production and comprehension: Evidence from induced oscillations

International Journal of Bilingualism ◽

10.1177/1367006918781073 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 23 (5) ◽

pp. 1041-1063

Author(s):

Ning Xie ◽

Baike Li ◽

Man Zhang ◽

Huanhuan Liu

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Skills ◽

Theta Oscillations ◽

Language Switching ◽

Top Down ◽

Response Latencies ◽

Language Background ◽

Language Control ◽

Cross Language ◽

Switching Task

Aims: The present study was designed to investigate the role of language control during simultaneous production and comprehension. Design: Participants completed a set of language background and cognitive skills questionnaires and were randomly divided into pairs. Then, the pairs of participants were asked to finish a joint language switching task while their electroencephalogram was recorded. When one participant was naming pictures, the other one was listening. The language to be used in each trial was specified by cues. Data and Analysis: Response latencies were obtained. An analysis was conducted on induced oscillations in a cue-locked period and a stimulus-locked period. Findings: An analysis of induced oscillations showed that production and comprehension exhibited different delta and theta oscillations, suggesting that cross-modality interference may be caused by joint language switching, and bilinguals employed different degrees of language control in comprehension and production. Furthermore, the cross-person condition exhibited stronger oscillations than the within-person condition, indicating that joint language switching involves cross-person interference and that bilinguals use additional oscillations to inhibit such interference. Importantly, the stimulus-locked period showed larger delta and theta oscillations in second language switch trials than in first language switch trials in the within-person condition, indicating that delta and theta may index the inhibition of cross-language interference. Originality: The current study revealed the top-down language control mechanism by analysing induced oscillations, which reflected a mainly cognitively driven process. Significance: Bilinguals’ language control might be used to inhibit complex interference during daily life.

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