Estimation of the virtual water trade between two Spanish regions: Castilla-la Mancha and Murcia

Virtual water is defined as the water needed to produce a product. We can use virtual water flow calculations to estimate the water efficiency of a country, as well as its economic dependence on water resources. Former studies on this area have focused on quantifying the virtual water flows between countries, in an international context. In this study we reduce the action framework to regions within a country, determining the virtual water balance between two Spanish regions: Castilla-La Mancha and Murcia. In 2004, Castilla-La Mancha exported to Murcia 2,453,442 tons of commercial products, from which 1,191,628 tons were agricultural goods. In terms of virtual water, it means 1,365 hm3, including food-processing, and industrial products. It is necessary to add 350 hm3 to the result, because of the water transfer (Tajo-Segura transfer) between the rivers basins of these regions, so the final virtual water number, in 2004, was 1,715 hm3. The other way round, Murcia exported in 2004 2,069,000 tons of products, from which 490,351 tons were agricultural goods. That supposes 712 hm3 of virtual water. Virtual water flow is unbalanced and displaced towards Murcia with a difference of 1,003 hm3.

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Analysis of Virtual Water Trade Flow and Driving Factors in the European Union

Water ◽

10.3390/w13131771 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (13) ◽

pp. 1771

Author(s):

Tianbo Fu ◽

Changxin Xu ◽

Xinyi Huang

Keyword(s):

European Union ◽

United Kingdom ◽

Water Flow ◽

Virtual Water ◽

The European Union ◽

Virtual Water Trade ◽

Water Flows ◽

The United Kingdom ◽

Virtual Water Flow ◽

Water Intensity

The inefficient application of water resources has become an urgent problem restricting the world’s sustainable development. Virtual Water Trade opens a new perspective on improving water resource utilization efficiency. Based on a multi-regional input–output model and the logarithmic mean Divisia index, the virtual water flows between 2000–2014 in 43 countries and regions have been evaluated, and the driving forces of changes in virtual water flows for the European Union were revealed. During the study period, the total amount of virtual water flow continued to increase. The United Kingdom is a net virtual water importer that depends on the European Union significantly. There was a large amount of virtual water flow from the European Union to the United States during 2000–2012. However, China gradually seized the share of virtual water from European Union exports after 2012. Economic effects and virtual water intensity effects are the most significant drivers of virtual water flows. The difference is that the economic effect positively drives virtual water flows, while the virtual water intensity effect negatively influences. The results reveal the nature of the United Kingdom in the virtual water trade and can provide post-Brexit recommendations.

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Virtual versus real water transfers within China

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences ◽

10.1098/rstb.2005.1644 ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 361 (1469) ◽

pp. 835-842 ◽

Cited By ~ 146

Author(s):

Jing Ma ◽

Arjen Y Hoekstra ◽

Hao Wang ◽

Ashok K Chapagain ◽

Dangxian Wang

Keyword(s):

South China ◽

Water Scarcity ◽

North China ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Transfer ◽

Qualitative Description ◽

The North ◽

Food Deficit ◽

Virtual Water Flow ◽

North Water

North China faces severe water scarcity—more than 40% of the annual renewable water resources are abstracted for human use. Nevertheless, nearly 10% of the water used in agriculture is employed in producing food exported to south China. To compensate for this ‘virtual water flow’ and to reduce water scarcity in the north, the huge south–north Water Transfer Project is currently being implemented. This paradox—the transfer of huge volumes of water from the water-rich south to the water-poor north versus transfer of substantial volumes of food from the food-sufficient north to the food-deficit south—is receiving increased attention, but the research in this field has not yet reached further than rough estimation and qualitative description. The aim of this paper is to review and quantify the volumes of virtual water flows between the regions in China and to put them in the context of water availability per region. The analysis shows that north China annually exports about 52 billion m 3 of water in virtual form to south China, which is more than the maximum proposed water transfer volume along the three routes of the Water Transfer Project from south to north.

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Inequalities in the networks of virtual water flow

Eos ◽

10.1029/2012eo320001 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 93 (32) ◽

pp. 309-310 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Joel Carr ◽

Paolo D'Odorico ◽

Francesco Laio ◽

Luca Ridolfi ◽

David Seekell

Keyword(s):

Water Flow ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Virtual Water Flow

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Optimization of virtual water flow via grain trade within China

Ecological Indicators ◽

10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.09.053 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 97 ◽

pp. 25-34 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Zongzhi Wang ◽

Lingling Zhang ◽

Qing Zhang ◽

Yi-Ming Wei ◽

Jin-Wei Wang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Flow ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Grain Trade ◽

Virtual Water Flow

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Physical and virtual water transfers for regional water stress alleviation in China

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ◽

10.1073/pnas.1404130112 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 112 (4) ◽

pp. 1031-1035 ◽

Cited By ~ 217

Author(s):

Xu Zhao ◽

Junguo Liu ◽

Qingying Liu ◽

Martin R. Tillotson ◽

Dabo Guan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Economic Development ◽

Water Stress ◽

Water Use ◽

Water Demand ◽

National Level ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Transfer ◽

Water Transfers ◽

Provincial Level ◽

Water Flows

Water can be redistributed through, in physical terms, water transfer projects and virtually, embodied water for the production of traded products. Here, we explore whether such water redistributions can help mitigate water stress in China. This study, for the first time to our knowledge, both compiles a full inventory for physical water transfers at a provincial level and maps virtual water flows between Chinese provinces in 2007 and 2030. Our results show that, at the national level, physical water flows because of the major water transfer projects amounted to 4.5% of national water supply, whereas virtual water flows accounted for 35% (varies between 11% and 65% at the provincial level) in 2007. Furthermore, our analysis shows that both physical and virtual water flows do not play a major role in mitigating water stress in the water-receiving regions but exacerbate water stress for the water-exporting regions of China. Future water stress in the main water-exporting provinces is likely to increase further based on our analysis of the historical trajectory of the major governing socioeconomic and technical factors and the full implementation of policy initiatives relating to water use and economic development. Improving water use efficiency is key to mitigating water stress, but the efficiency gains will be largely offset by the water demand increase caused by continued economic development. We conclude that much greater attention needs to be paid to water demand management rather than the current focus on supply-oriented management.

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