Effect of Varied Magnitude of Reward on Runway Performance

1964 ◽  
Vol 14 (1) ◽  
pp. 199-202
Author(s):  
Douglas L. Grimsley ◽  
Robert D. McDonald
Keyword(s):  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Runway Performance ◽  
Continuous Reinforcement ◽  
Reward Group ◽  
Varied Reinforcement

Runway speed was investigated in 3 groups of water-deprived rats ( n = 14 per group) given one trial per day for 100 days. No statistically significant differences were found between Ss continuously receiving 0.8 cc (large reward group) or 0.1 cc (small reward group) of water and those given 0.8 cc and 0.1 cc (varied reward group) semirandomly. These data are not consistent with a position derived from a micromolar theory holding that continuous reinforcement training results in better performance than varied reinforcement training.

scholarly journals Effects of early life and current housing on sensitivity to reward loss in a successive negative contrast test in pigs

2019 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 121-130 ◽  
Author(s):  
L. Luo ◽  
I. Reimert ◽  
E. A. M. Graat ◽  
S. Smeets ◽  
B. Kemp ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Early Life ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Affective State ◽  
Negative Contrast ◽  
Lower Probability ◽  
Housing Conditions ◽  
Long Term Effects ◽  
Sensitivity To Reward ◽  
Successive Negative Contrast

Abstract Animals in a negative affective state seem to be more sensitive to reward loss, i.e. an unexpected decrease in reward size. The aim of this study was to investigate whether early-life and current enriched vs. barren housing conditions affect the sensitivity to reward loss in pigs using a successive negative contrast test. Pigs (n = 64 from 32 pens) were housed in barren or enriched conditions from birth onwards, and at 7 weeks of age experienced either a switch in housing conditions (from barren to enriched or vice versa) or not. Allotting pigs to the different treatments was balanced for coping style (proactive vs. reactive). One pig per pen was trained to run for a large reward and one for a small reward. Reward loss was introduced for pigs receiving the large reward after 11 days (reward downshift), i.e. from then onwards, they received the small reward. Pigs housed in barren conditions throughout life generally had a lower probability and higher latency to get the reward than other pigs. Proactive pigs ran overall slower than reactive pigs. After the reward downshift, all pigs ran slower. Nevertheless, reward downshift increased the latency and reduced the probability to get to the reward, but only in pigs exposed to barren conditions in early life, which thus were more sensitive to reward loss than pigs from enriched early life housing. In conclusion, barren housed pigs seemed overall less motivated for the reward, and early life housing conditions had long-term effects on the sensitivity to reward loss.

scholarly journals In monkeys making value-based decisions, amygdala neurons are sensitive to cue value as distinct from cue salience

2017 ◽  
Vol 117 (4) ◽  
pp. 1499-1511 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marvin L. Leathers ◽  
Carl R. Olson
Keyword(s):  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Macaque Monkey ◽  
Neuronal Responses ◽  
Variable Size ◽  
Motivational Salience ◽  
Cue Salience ◽  
Activity Dependent ◽  
The Brain ◽  
Identical Task

Neurons in the lateral intraparietal (LIP) area of macaque monkey parietal cortex respond to cues predicting rewards and penalties of variable size in a manner that depends on the motivational salience of the predicted outcome (strong for both large reward and large penalty) rather than on its value (positive for large reward and negative for large penalty). This finding suggests that LIP mediates the capture of attention by salient events and does not encode value in the service of value-based decision making. It leaves open the question whether neurons elsewhere in the brain encode value in the identical task. To resolve this issue, we recorded neuronal activity in the amygdala in the context of the task employed in the LIP study. We found that responses to reward-predicting cues were similar between areas, with the majority of reward-sensitive neurons responding more strongly to cues that predicted large reward than to those that predicted small reward. Responses to penalty-predicting cues were, however, markedly different. In the amygdala, unlike LIP, few neurons were sensitive to penalty size, few penalty-sensitive neurons favored large over small penalty, and the dependence of firing rate on penalty size was negatively correlated with its dependence on reward size. These results indicate that amygdala neurons encoded cue value under circumstances in which LIP neurons exhibited sensitivity to motivational salience. However, the representation of negative value, as reflected in sensitivity to penalty size, was weaker than the representation of positive value, as reflected in sensitivity to reward size. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to characterize amygdala neuronal responses to cues predicting rewards and penalties of variable size in monkeys making value-based choices. Manipulating reward and penalty size allowed distinguishing activity dependent on motivational salience from activity dependent on value. This approach revealed in a previous study that neurons of the lateral intraparietal (LIP) area encode motivational salience. Here, it reveals that amygdala neurons encode value. The results establish a sharp functional distinction between the two areas.

scholarly journals Overt attentional capture by reward-related stimuli overcomes inhibitory suppression

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Pearson ◽  
Poppy Watson ◽  
Phillip Cheng ◽  
Mike Le Pelley
Keyword(s):  
Large Reward ◽  
Search Task ◽  
Visual Search Task ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Eye Gaze ◽  
Negative Consequences ◽  
Target Template ◽  
Irrelevant Distractors ◽  
Separate Line ◽  
Special Priority

Salient-but-irrelevant distractors can automatically capture attention and eye-gaze in visualsearch. However, recent findings have suggested that attention to salient-but-irrelevant stimulican be suppressed when observers use a specific target template to guide their search (i.e.,feature search). A separate line of research has indicated that attentional selection isinfluenced by factors other than the physical salience of a stimulus and the observer’s goals.For instance, pairing a stimulus with reward has been shown to increase the extent to which itcaptures attention and gaze (as though it has become more physically salient), even when suchcapture has negative consequences for the observer. Here we used eye-tracking with arewarded visual search task to investigate whether capture by reward can be suppressed in thesame way as capture by physical salience. When participants were encouraged to use featuresearch, attention to a distractor paired with relatively small reward was suppressed. However,under the same conditions attention was captured by a distractor paired with large reward,even when such capture resulted in reward omission. These findings suggest thatreward-related stimuli are given special priority within the visual attention system over andabove physically-salient stimuli, and have implications for our understanding of real-worldbiases to reward-related stimuli, such as those seen in addiction.

Effects of Preshift Small Magnitude of Reward Received during Goalbox Placements on the Negative Contrast Effect

2004 ◽  
Vol 94 (2) ◽  
pp. 683-686 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard S. Calef ◽  
Michael C. Choban ◽  
Katherine R. Glenney ◽  
Ruth A. Calef ◽  
Errika M. Mace ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Contrast Effect ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Food Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Negative Contrast Effect ◽  
Negative Contrast ◽  
Straight Alley ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Small Magnitude ◽  
Experimental Group

During preshift, one experimental group of rats was given a large magnitude of food reward following a traversal of a straight alley and during a goalbox placement, while the other experimental group was given a small reward during goalbox placement and a large reward following a run. During postshift, all experimental groups were given a small reward of food following a traversal down the runway and during a goalbox placement. A control group was maintained on small reward during placements and following a traversal throughout the study. Only the group who received preshift large reward during placement and following a runway response ran slower to small reward during postshift than the control group maintained on small reward (negative contrast effect).

Secondary Reinforcement Effects as a Function of Reward Magnitude Training Methods

1964 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 7-10 ◽  
Author(s):  
William F. Reynolds ◽  
William B. Pavlik ◽  
Ellen Goldstein
Keyword(s):  
Reward Magnitude ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Secondary Reinforcement ◽  
Albino Rats ◽  
Training Methods ◽  
Magnitude Effect ◽  
Discrete Trial ◽  
Test Conditions ◽  
Trial Test

5 groups of 10 albino rats were trained by direct goalbox placement to either a black or striped goalbox. Two groups were trained under absolute conditions with either large (A-L) or small reward (A-S), and 2 groups were discrimination trained to the goalboxes with either large (D-L) or small (D-S) reward. A fifth group received differential training with large reward to one goalbox and small reward to the other (Df). The test period, consisting of free and forced-choice T-maze trials extended over 10 days. It was found that only the A-S mean failed to exceed chance, the Df mean significantly exceeded the A-L mean but not the D-L or D-S means, and even under highly controlled discrete-trial test conditions, differential training produces a stronger reward magnitude effect than absolute training.

scholarly journals Interactions between target location and reward size modulate the rate of microsaccades in monkeys

2015 ◽  
Vol 114 (5) ◽  
pp. 2616-2624 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mati Joshua ◽  
Stefanie Tokiyama ◽  
Stephen G. Lisberger
Keyword(s):  
Indirect Effects ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Opposite Effect ◽  
Target Location ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Target Motion ◽  
Pursuit Initiation ◽  
Future Reward ◽  
Exogenous Cue ◽  
A Site

We have studied how rewards modulate the occurrence of microsaccades by manipulating the size of an expected reward and the location of the cue that sets the expectations for future reward. We found an interaction between the size of the reward and the location of the cue. When monkeys fixated on a cue that signaled the size of future reward, the frequency of microsaccades was higher if the monkey expected a large vs. a small reward. When the cue was presented at a site in the visual field that was remote from the position of fixation, reward size had the opposite effect: the frequency of microsaccades was lower when the monkey was expecting a large reward. The strength of pursuit initiation also was affected by reward size and by the presence of microsaccades just before the onset of target motion. The gain of pursuit initiation increased with reward size and decreased when microsaccades occurred just before or after the onset of target motion. The effect of the reward size on pursuit initiation was much larger than any indirect effects reward might cause through modulation of the rate of microsaccades. We found only a weak relationship between microsaccade direction and the location of the exogenous cue relative to fixation position, even in experiments where the location of the cue indicated the direction of target motion. Our results indicate that the expectation of reward is a powerful modulator of the occurrence of microsaccades, perhaps through attentional mechanisms.

Multiple Shifts in Magnitude of Reward

1981 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
pp. 335-338 ◽  
Author(s):  
David T. Goomas
Keyword(s):  
Contrast Effect ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Negative Contrast Effect ◽  
Negative Contrast ◽  
Positive Contrast ◽  
Positive Contrast Effect ◽  
Shift Group

Three groups of 5 rats were administered either large reward (10 pellets), small reward (2 pellets), or multiple shifts (Iarge-small-large-etc.) in an alleyway. The multiple-shift group received a total of 7 large and 6 small phases of reinforcement. Early in training the shifted group exhibited positive contrast effect to a shift to large reward and negative contrast effect to a shift to small reward. Later in training, the same group showed neither effect perhaps because experience with the shift provided a smaller discrepancy between the upshifts and downshifts in magnitude of reward.

scholarly journals Study of Intertemporal Discounting According to Age Groups

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 126-139
Author(s):  
Jiri Rotschedl ◽  
Jiri Rotschedl
Keyword(s):  
Discount Rate ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Aging Population ◽  
Time Discounting ◽  
Impulsive Behaviour ◽  
Delayed Reward ◽  
Intertemporal Discounting ◽  
Basic Hypothesis

The paper focuses on the topic of intertemporal discounting of individuals according to age groups. Using the sample of examined individuals, it aims to verify the hypothesis that the patience of individuals decreases with their increasing age. The study included a total of 599 individuals with an average age of 38.3 years (min. 16 and max. 82 years) who answered classical questions focused on time discounting and impulsive behaviour. In total, four possible scenarios were analysed: a small reward (CZK 100) with a delay of 1 day, a small reward with a delay of 1 month, a large reward (CZK 100,000) with a delay of 1 day and a large reward with a delay of 1 month. The delayed reward was always increased by 10% (i.e., CZK 110 or CZK 110,000). The basic hypothesis was that with increasing age, the subjective discount rate increases i.e., patience decreases. The above-mentioned 4 scenarios were evaluated for the hypotheses, while only three of the four scenarios were confirmed for all hypotheses. The results in the examined individuals suggest that with increasing age, there is a decrease in patience and at the same time a decrease in impulsive behaviour. These findings may have an overlap in consumption or savings in relation to the aging population.

Neuronal Encoding of Reward Value and Direction of Actions in the Primate Putamen

2009 ◽  
Vol 102 (6) ◽  
pp. 3530-3543 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yukiko Hori ◽  
Takafumi Minamimoto ◽  
Minoru Kimura
Keyword(s):  
Basal Ganglia ◽  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Button Press ◽  
Projection Neurons ◽  
Discharge Rates ◽  
Reward Value ◽  
External Events ◽  
Neuronal Encoding ◽  
Response Direction

Decision making and action selection are influenced by the values of benefit, reward, cost, and punishment. Mapping of the positive and negative values of external events and actions occurs mainly via the discharge rates of neurons in the cerebral cortex, the amygdala, and the basal ganglia. However, it remains unclear how the reward values of external events and actions encoded in the basal ganglia are integrated into reward value-based control of limb-movement actions through the corticobasal ganglia loops. To address this issue, we investigated the activities of presumed projection neurons in the putamen of macaque monkeys performing a visually instructed GO–NOGO button-press task for large and small rewards. Regression analyses of neuronal discharge rates, actions, and reward values revealed three major categories of neurons. First, neurons activated during the preinstruction delay period were selective to either the GO(large reward)–NOGO(small reward) or NOGO(large reward)–GO(small reward) combinations, although the actions to be instructed were not predictable. Second, during the postinstruction epoch, GO and NOGO action-related activities were highly selective to reward size. The pre- and postinstruction activities of a large subset of neurons were also selective to cue position or GO-response direction. Third, neurons activated during both the pre- and postinstruction epochs were selective to both action and reward size. The results support the view that putamen neurons encode reward value and direction of actions, which may be a basis for mediating the processes leading from reward-value mapping to guiding ongoing actions toward their expected outcomes and directions.

scholarly journals Parametric shift from rational to irrational decisions in mice

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Nathan A. Schneider ◽  
Benjamin Ballintyn ◽  
Donald Katz ◽  
John Lisman ◽  
Hyun-Jae Pi
Keyword(s):  
Large Reward ◽  
Small Reward ◽  
Optimal Solution ◽  
Task Design ◽  
Costs And Benefits ◽  
Sunk Cost ◽  
Classical View ◽  
Optimal Outcomes ◽  
The Cost ◽  
Economic Choices

AbstractIn the classical view of economic choices, subjects make rational decisions evaluating the costs and benefits of options in order to maximize their overall income. Nonetheless, subjects often fail to reach optimal outcomes. The overt value of an option drives the direction of decisions, but covert factors such as emotion and sensitivity to sunk cost are thought to drive the observed deviations from optimality. Many questions remain to be answered as to (1) which contexts contribute the most to deviation from an optimal solution; and (2) the extent of these effects. In order to tackle these questions, we devised a decision-making task for mice, in which cost and benefit parameters could be independently and flexibly adjusted and for which a tractable optimal solution was known. Comparing mouse behavior with this optimal solution across parameter settings revealed that the factor most strongly contributing to suboptimal performance was the cost parameter. The quantification of sensitivity to sunk cost, a covert factor implicated in our task design, revealed it as another contributor to reduced optimality. In one condition where the large reward option was particularly unattractive and the small reward cost was low, the sensitivity to sunk cost and the cost-led suboptimality almost vanished. In this regime and this regime only, mice could be viewed as close to rational (here, ‘rational’ refers to a state in which an animal makes decisions basing on objective valuation, not covert factors). Taken together, our results suggest that “rationality” is a task-specific construct even in mice.

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