Refining the Motivating Operation Construct: Eliminating the Value-Altering Function and Specifying the Behavior-Altering Functions

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Matthew Lewon ◽  
Linda J. Hayes
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Motivating Operations ◽  
Empirical Literature ◽  
Motivating Operation ◽  
Discriminative Stimuli ◽  
Multiple Functions ◽  
A Value

Motivating operations (MOs) are held to 1) alter the value/efficacy of consequential stimuli (value-altering function) and 2) alter behavior relevant to these stimuli (behavior-altering function). These two functions are considered critically against empirical evidence to evaluate the extent to which each corresponds to actual observations of behavior-environment relations. On this basis, the following refinements are suggested. First, positing a value-altering function of MOs is unnecessary because observations that have been taken as evidence for this function are adequately and parsimoniously described in terms of MOs’ behavior-altering functions, particularly their effects on the evocative efficacy of discriminative stimuli that have been associated with certain consequential events. Second, the precision of descriptions of the behavior-altering functions of MOs may be increased by explicitly acknowledging that MOs serve multiple functions. In addition to their motivational functions, MOs affect behavior by serving eliciting, discriminative, and reinforcing or punishing functions. Interactions between the effects of different MOs and biologically-based individual differences in susceptibilities to certain MOs also play a role determining their behavior-altering functions. In surveying the existing empirical literature relevant to these issues, areas in which further investigation is needed are highlighted.

A Truce in Criminal Law’s Distributive Principle Wars?

2020 ◽  
Vol 23 (4) ◽  
pp. 565-583
Author(s):  
Paul H. Robinson
Keyword(s):  
Criminal Justice ◽  
Criminal Justice System ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Justice System ◽  
Crime Control ◽  
Criminal Liability ◽  
A Value ◽  
Principles Of Justice ◽  
Past Wrongs

Crime-control utilitarians and retributivist philosophers have long been at war over the appropriate distributive principle for criminal liability and punishment, with little apparent possibility of reconciliation between the two. In the utilitarians’ view, the imposition of punishment can be justified only by the practical benefit that it provides: avoiding future crime. In the retributivists’ view, doing justice for past wrongs is a value in itself that requires no further justification. The competing approaches simply use different currencies: fighting future crime versus doing justice for past wrongs. It is argued here that the two are in fact reconcilable, in a fashion. We cannot declare a winner in the distributive principle wars but something more like a truce. Specifically, good utilitarians ought to support a distributive principle based upon desert because the empirical evidence suggests that doing justice for past wrongdoing is likely the most effective and efficient means of controlling future crime. A criminal justice system perceived by the community as conflicting with its principles of justice provokes resistance and subversion, whereas a criminal justice system that earns a reputation for reliably doing justice is one whose moral credibility inspires deference, assistance, and acquiescence, and is more likely to have citizens internalize its norms of what is truly condemnable conduct. Retributivists ought to support empirical desert as a distributive principle because, while it is indeed distinct from deontological desert, there exists an enormous overlap between the two, and it seems likely that empirical desert may be the best practical approximation of deontological desert. Indeed, some philosophers would argue that the two are necessarily the same.

Polarized News Media and the Polarization of the Electorate

2010 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 35-50 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank C.S. Liu
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Communication Networks ◽  
News Media ◽  
Media Communication ◽  
Media Environment ◽  
Agent Based ◽  
Divided Societies ◽  
Agent Based Simulations

An increasing amount of empirical evidence suggests that in democracies that usually divide into two camps during a campaign season, the news media environment is fragmented and polarized. An emerging concern is whether the electorate in such divided societies would be pulled by polarized news media outlets and become polarized as well. This study, employing a series of agent-based simulations that takes into account polarized news media, communication networks, and individual differences all together, explores the effect of a polarized news environment on increases in extremist opinions and in the proportion of individuals with divided communication networks. It also identifies circumstances under which individuals perceive division within their communication networks. The findings suggest that the effect of a polarized news media environment on polarizing the electorate may be overestimated, while the homogenizing effect of communication networks may be underestimated.

scholarly journals Evolutionary causes and consequences of consistent individual variation in cooperative behaviour

2010 ◽  
Vol 365 (1553) ◽  
pp. 2751-2764 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ralph Bergmüller ◽  
Roger Schürch ◽  
Ian M. Hamilton
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Individual Variation ◽  
Animal Personality ◽  
Evolutionary Stability ◽  
Behavioural Syndrome ◽  
Phenotypic Traits ◽  
Cooperative Behaviour ◽  
Heritable Variation ◽  
Fitness Consequences

Behaviour is typically regarded as among the most flexible of animal phenotypic traits. In particular, expression of cooperative behaviour is often assumed to be conditional upon the behaviours of others. This flexibility is a key component of many hypothesized mechanisms favouring the evolution of cooperative behaviour. However, evidence shows that cooperative behaviours are often less flexible than expected and that, in many species, individuals show consistent differences in the amount and type of cooperative and non-cooperative behaviours displayed. This phenomenon is known as ‘animal personality’ or a ‘behavioural syndrome’. Animal personality is evolutionarily relevant, as it typically shows heritable variation and can entail fitness consequences, and hence, is subject to evolutionary change. Here, we review the empirical evidence for individual variation in cooperative behaviour across taxa, we examine the evolutionary processes that have been invoked to explain the existence of individual variation in cooperative behaviour and we discuss the consequences of consistent individual differences on the evolutionary stability of cooperation. We highlight that consistent individual variation in cooperativeness can both stabilize or disrupt cooperation in populations. We conclude that recognizing the existence of consistent individual differences in cooperativeness is essential for an understanding of the evolution and prevalence of cooperation.

scholarly journals Motivated Bayesians: Feeling Moral While Acting Egoistically

2016 ◽  
Vol 30 (3) ◽  
pp. 189-212 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francesca Gino ◽  
Michael I. Norton ◽  
Roberto A. Weber
Keyword(s):  
Utility Function ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Ample Evidence ◽  
Clear Cut ◽  
Economic Framework ◽  
A Value ◽  
Psychology And Economics ◽  
Self Interest ◽  
Growing Body ◽  
Natural Way

Research yields ample evidence that individual's behavior often reflects an apparent concern for moral considerations. A natural way to interpret evidence of such motives using an economic framework is to add an argument to the utility function such that agents obtain utility both from outcomes that yield only personal benefits and from acting kindly, honestly, or according to some other notion of “right.” Indeed, such interpretations can account for much of the existing empirical evidence. However, a growing body of research at the intersection of psychology and economics produces findings inconsistent with such straightforward, preference-based interpretations for moral behavior. In particular, while people are often willing to take a moral act that imposes personal material costs when confronted with a clear-cut choice between “right” and “wrong,” such decisions often seem to be dramatically influenced by the specific contexts in which they occur. In particular, when the context provides sufficient flexibility to allow plausible justification that one can both act egoistically while remaining moral, people seize on such opportunities to prioritize self-interest at the expense of morality. In other words, people who appear to exhibit a preference for being moral may in fact be placing a value on feeling moral, often accomplishing this goal by manipulating the manner in which they process information to justify taking egoistic actions while maintaining this feeling of morality.

scholarly journals The Impact of Public Expenditure on Economic Growth: A Review of International Literature

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 81-101
Author(s):  
Sheilla Nyasha ◽  
Nicholas M. Odhiambo
Keyword(s):  
Economic Growth ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Government Spending ◽  
Public Expenditure ◽  
Negative Impact ◽  
Positive Impact ◽  
Government Expenditure ◽  
Empirical Literature ◽  
The Impact ◽  
The Relationship

Abstract Research background: Although a number of studies have been conducted on the relationship between public expenditure and economic growth, it is difficult to tell with certainty whether or not an increase in public expenditure is good for economic growth. This lack of consensus on the results of the previous empirical findings makes this study of paramount importance as we take stock of the available empirical evidence from the 1980s to date. Purpose: In this paper, theoretical and empirical literature on the relationship between government expenditure and economic growth has been reviewed in detail. Focus was placed on the review of literature that assessed the impact of government spending on economic growth. Research Methodology: This study grouped studies on the impact of public expenditure on economic growth based on their results. Three groups emerged – positive impact, negative impact and no impact. This was followed by a review of each relevant study and an evaluation of which outcome was more prevalent among the existing studies on the subject. Results: The literature reviewed has shown that the impact of government spending on economic growth is not clear cut. It varies from positive to negative; with some studies even finding no impact. Although the impact of government spending on economic growth was found to be inconclusive, the scale tilts towards a positive impact. Novelty: The study provides an insight into the relationship between public expenditure and economic growth based on a comprehensive review of previous empirical evidence across various countries since the 1980s.

scholarly journals Individual differences in behaviour explain variation in survival: a meta-analysis

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Moiron ◽  
Kate L. Laskowski ◽  
Petri Toivo Niemelä
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Animal Personality ◽  
Trade Off ◽  
Trade Offs ◽  
In The Wild ◽  
Behavioural Types ◽  
Risky Behaviours ◽  
First Time

Research focusing on among-individual differences in behaviour (“animal personality”) has been blooming for over a decade. One of the central theories explaining the maintenance of behavioural variation posits a trade-off between behaviour and survival with individuals expressing greater “risky” behaviours suffering higher mortality. Here, for the first time, we synthesize the existing empirical evidence for this key prediction. Our results did not support this prediction as there was no directional relationship between riskier behaviour and greater mortality; however there was a significant absolute relationship between behaviour and survival. In total, behaviour explained a significant, but small, portion (4.4%) of the variance in survival. We also found that risky (versus “shy”) behavioural types live longer in the wild, but not in the laboratory. This suggests that individuals expressing risky behaviours might be of overall higher quality but the lack of predation pressure and resource restrictions mask this effect in laboratory environments. Our work implies that individual differences in behaviour explain important differences in survival but not in the direction predicted by theory. Importantly, this suggests that the models predicting survival trade-offs may need revision and/or empiricists may need to reconsider their proxies of risky behaviours when testing such theory.

The Accuracy of Stereotypes About Personality

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lee Jussim ◽  
Sean Stevens ◽  
Nathan Honeycutt
Keyword(s):  
Individual Differences ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Racial Stereotypes ◽  
National Character ◽  
Methodological Issues ◽  
Ballet Dancers ◽  
Self Reports ◽  
Different Types

This chapter first reviews general conceptual and methodological issues in the study of the (in)accuracy of stereotypes. First, the authors define stereotype accuracy. Second, different types of accuracy are discussed and standards for considering a stereotype belief accurate or inaccurate are presented. Finally, the chapter reviews the empirical evidence produced thus far that bears on the (in)accuracy of stereotypes regarding personality. The strongest evidence regarding the (in)accuracy of stereotypes regarding personality have focused on gender, age, and national character stereotypes. Weaker evidence relying primarily on self-reports of individual differences with respect to racial stereotypes and miscellaneous stereotypes (e.g., jazz vs. ballet dancers) is also reviewed. The chapter concludes by developing hypotheses that could help explain the pattern of (in)accuracy in stereotypes regarding personality.

Three essays on trade credit theory and empirical evidence from agro-food firms in Africa and United States

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Stanley Kojo Dary
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Trade Credit ◽  
The United States ◽  
Empirical Literature ◽  
African Countries ◽  
Empirical Results ◽  
Firm Profitability ◽  
Credit Contracts ◽  
Benefits And Costs

[ACCESS RESTRICTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AT AUTHOR'S REQUEST.] In a quest to understand the motives for use of trade credit in inter-firm trade, many theories have been put forward. The empirical literature on trade credit are largely focused on understanding firms' motives for use of trade credit, by testing these theories with micro- and macro-level data. Against the background that the extent and motives for use of trade credit in the agro-food industry is less understood, this dissertation extends the frontiers of knowledge on trade credit use by examining trade credit theories and empirical evidence from agro-food firms in Africa and the United States. The dissertation consists of three essays. The first essay examines trade credit contracts, trade credit theories and empirical evidence in support of or otherwise of the theories via review and analysis of the theoretical and empirical trade credit literature. The second essay examines the motives for trade credit supply in the African agro-food manufacturing industry, employing survey data from eight African countries -- Burundi, Malawi, Mauritania, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Sudan and Sudan. Premised on the fact that there are benefits and costs of investing in trade credit, the third essay examines investment in trade credit and firm profitability, using a panel of listed agro-food firms in the United States for the period 2001-2014. The review in essay one revealed a high use of trade credit in inter-firm trade, with variations across countries and industries. It is revealed that trade credit contracts are simple in nature and factors such as the shortness of credit periods, frequency of transactions, close proximity and interaction between suppliers and customers, and effective informal enforcement mechanisms may account for the simplified nature of trade credit contracts. However, the use of trade credit is a multidimensional phenomenon, driven by varied yet interconnected motives, thus making it complex to put forward a single theory to explain the use of trade credit in interfirm trade. Contrary to a long-held notion that trade credit is expensive relative to bank credit, evidence from the empirical literature suggests the opposite. In general, there is more empirical support for the theories of trade credit. The empirical results show a high participation of agro-food firms in trade credit activity in African countries and the United States. While within-industry variability in trade credit activity is not statistically significant in the African agro-food industry, there is significant within-industry variability in the United States. However, there is statistically significant variability in trade credit activity across agro-food firms in the African countries studied. The empirical results from essay two show that the level of trade credit supply increases with manager experience, degree of product diversification, overdraft availability from banks, trade credit from input suppliers and location in capital city. The results provide evidence in support of financing (particularly liquidity and redistribution) and commercial (particularly marketing and quality guarantee) theories of trade credit. Essay three found evidence of a non-linear (inverted U) relationship between trade credit investment and firm profitability, reflecting benefits and costs of trade credit investment. This finding suggest that agro-food firms should be guided by benefit-costs off in their trade credit investment decisions. The study found the threshold of trade credit investment beyond which the relationship between trade credit investment and firm profitability transition from positive to negative. In general, the empirical results show that trade credit is an important source of short-term financing for agro-food firms in African countries and the United States, and should be facilitated through policy.

Internalization: Empirical Evidence

2015 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pol Antràs
Keyword(s):  
Empirical Evidence ◽  
Empirical Literature ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Past Work ◽  
Empirical Tests

This chapter describes how the internalization theories discussed in the previous chapters can be taken to the data. The empirical literature on this topic is still budding and has yet to provide fully convincing empirical tests of these models. Several well-crafted papers have offered different pieces of evidence that are consistent with one or more of those models, but the power of such tests remains fairly low, as the chapter explains. The goal of this chapter is thus not only to overview and replicate past work, but to try to highlight some of its limitations and suggest avenues for future research in this area.

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