Humans have always looked up at the stars and dreamed about outer space as the final frontier. The launch of the first artificial satellite—Sputnik—in 1957 by the Soviet Union and the first man on the Moon in 1969 represent significant missions in space exploration history. In 1972, Apollo 17 marked the last human program on the lunar surface. Nevertheless, several robotic spacecrafts have traveled to the Moon, such as the Soviet Luna 24 in 1976, and China’s Chang’e 4 in 2019, which was the first time a space vehicle touched down on the Moon’s far side. The international space community is currently assessing a return to the Moon in 2024 and even beyond, in the coming decades, toward the Red Planet, Mars. Robots and rovers (for example Curiosity, Philae, Rosetta, and Perseverance) will continue to play a major role in space exploration by paving the way for future long-duration missions on celestial bodies. It is still impossible to land humans on Mars or on other celestial bodies because there are significant challenges to overcome from technological and physiological perspectives. Therefore, the support of machines and artificial intelligence is essential for developing future deep space programs as well as to reach a sustainable space exploration. One can imagine a future scenario where robots and humans collaborate on the Moon’s surface or on celestial bodies to undertake scientific research, to extract and to analyze space resources for a possible in situ utilization, as well as to build sites for human habitation and work. The principles of free exploration and cooperation are core elements in the international space legal framework as mentioned in Article I of the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. In this context of new ‘robots–humans’ cooperation, it is also necessary to consider the provisions of the 1972 Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, the 1975 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, the 1968 Agreement of the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, and the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, as well as some recent international agreements signed for future Moon missions given their significant importance for space exploration.
National appropriation of natural resources in the international space law
