Rare Earth Elements and Other Critical Metals in Deep Seabed Mineral Deposits: Composition and Implications for Resource Potential

The critical metal contents of four types of seabed mineral resources, including a deep-sea sediment deposit, are evaluated as potential rare earth element (REE) resources. The deep-sea resources have relatively low total rare earth oxide (TREO) contents, a narrow range of TREO grades (0.049–0.185%), and show characteristics that are consistent with those of land-based ion adsorption REE deposits. The relative REO distributions of the deep-seabed resources are also consistent with those of ion adsorption REE deposits on land. REEs that are not part of a crystal lattice of host minerals within deep-sea mineral deposits are favorable for mining, as there is no requirement for crushing and/or pulverizing during ore processing. Furthermore, low concentrations of Th and U reduce the risk of adverse environmental impacts. Despite the low TREO grades of the deep-seabed mineral deposits, a significant TREO yield from polymetallic nodules and REE-bearing deep-sea sediments from the Korean tenements has been estimated (1 Mt and 8 Mt, respectively). Compared with land-based REE deposits, deep-sea mineral deposits can be considered as low-grade mineral deposits with a large tonnage. The REEs and critical metals from deep-sea mineral deposits are important by-products and co-products of the main commodities (e.g., Co and Ni), and may increase the economic feasibility of their extraction.

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Non-Renewable Resource Depletion and Use

Environmental Science ◽

10.1093/obo/9780199363445-0128 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Simon M. Jowitt

Keyword(s):

Social Issues ◽

Mineral Resources ◽

Resource Depletion ◽

Renewable Resource ◽

Mineral Deposits ◽

Supply Risk ◽

Critical Metals ◽

Processing Technologies ◽

Geological Processes ◽

Depth Analysis

Modern society relies on an increasing number of minerals and metals, meaning that over time production of these commodities has significantly increased, especially within the last fifty years. However, metals and minerals are dominantly produced from ore or mineral deposits that are inherently non-renewable as the geological processes that form these resources (and if necessary exhume them to nearer surface environments where they can be exploited) occur at much slower rates (often over thousands or millions of years) than they are being consumed. This at a basic level indicates that at some point we will “run out” of these non-renewable resources. Although this may be true on a very long timescale, this simple view does not take into account a number of different factors, such as changes in the types, sizes, and grades of mineral deposits that are being exploited. Past changes in the mineral and mining sectors have led to a global increase in mineral and metal production throughout the 20th and 21st centuries that has been (more than) matched by an increase in global mineral and metal resources and reserves. This increase in the amount of material available for exploitation has reflected the decreasing cost of mining and energy, the development of new mining and mineral processing technologies, continued exploration success that has led to the discovery of new resources and reserves, and increasing demand, which in real terms has increased the prices of the majority of commodities. However, the potential lifespan of these historic patterns remains unclear, especially given that mineral resources are finite and other aspects that influence metal and mineral production, such as energy costs and environmental and social issues, are becoming increasingly important. This has led to recent concerns focused on a variety of metals and minerals considered to be at potential supply risk, including base metals such as zinc as well as a the so-called critical metals; metals that are associated with supply risk as a result of their concentration of supply, political instability in source countries, or production (and hence reliance) as by-products to primary metals such as Cu or Zn. These risks are compounded by the fact that these critical metals and minerals are essential for numerous often advanced technologies as well as defense and energy production requirements. This review focuses on the key considerations in estimating metal and mineral resources, aspects that need to be considered when estimating current resources and reserves and determining whether we can meet current and future demand. The dynamic nature of global metal and mineral resources means that an in-depth analysis of these data is not within the scope of this review, although the references provided form a comprehensive bibliography for this topic.

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A review of the potential for rare-earth element resources from European red muds: examples from Seydişehir, Turkey and Parnassus-Giona, Greece

Mineralogical Magazine ◽

10.1180/minmag.2016.080.052 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 80 (1) ◽

pp. 43-61 ◽

Cited By ~ 50

Author(s):

Éimear A. Deady ◽

Evangelos Mouchos ◽

Kathryn Goodenough ◽

Ben J. Williamson ◽

Frances Wall

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Red Mud ◽

Waste Product ◽

Bayer Process ◽

Low Grade ◽

Critical Metals ◽

Political Issues ◽

Pass Through ◽

Study Sites

AbstractRare-earth elements (REE) are viewed as 'critical metals' due to a complex array of production and political issues, most notably a near monopoly in supply from China. Red mud, the waste product of the Bayer process that produces alumina from bauxite, represents a potential secondary resource ofREE. Karst bauxite deposits represent the ideal source material forREE-enriched red mud as the conditions during formation of the bauxite allow for the retention ofREE. TheREEpass through the Bayer Process and are concentrated in the waste material. Millions of tonnes of red mud are currently stockpiled in onshore storage facilities across Europe, representing a potentialREEresource. Red mud from two case study sites, one in Greece and the other in Turkey, has been found to contain an average of ∼1000 ppm totalREE, with an enrichment of light over heavyREE. Although this is relatively low grade when compared with typical primaryREEdeposits (Mountain Pass and Mount Weld up to 80,000 ppm), it is of interest because of the large volumes available, the cost benefits of reprocessing waste, and the low proportion of contained radioactive elements. This work shows that ∼12,000 tonnes ofREEexist in red mud at the two case study areas alone, with much larger resources existing across Europe as a whole.

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Selective recovery of rare earth elements from ion-adsorption rare earth element ores by stepwise extraction with HEH(EHP) and HDEHP

Green Chemistry ◽

10.1039/c6gc03388a ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 19 (5) ◽

pp. 1345-1352 ◽

Cited By ~ 54

Author(s):

Xiaowei Huang ◽

Jinshi Dong ◽

Liangshi Wang ◽

Zongyu Feng ◽

Qiannan Xue ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Rare Earth Elements ◽

Rare Earth Element ◽

Earth Element ◽

Mineral Resources ◽

Ion Adsorption ◽

Selective Recovery

Ion-adsorption rare earth element (REE) ores are strategic mineral resources, particularly for heavy REEs.

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Considerations for Seabed Rare Earth Mining in the Pacific

Volume 3: Materials Technology; Ocean Space Utilization ◽

10.1115/omae2013-10844 ◽

2013 ◽

Author(s):

Hugh A. Wolgamot ◽

Wei Zhang ◽

Evangelia Kiosidou ◽

Sung-hee Kim ◽

Musa Bashir

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Rare Earths ◽

Deep Sea ◽

Mineral Resources ◽

Environmental Concerns ◽

Seabed Sediment ◽

The Pacific ◽

The Subject

A number of deep-sea mineral resources are well known and have been the subject of mining proposals. However, a recent paper has identified a new resource on the deep seabed in the form of rare-earth-rich seabed sediment. This paper considers issues associated with harvesting this resource from some of the identified locations, including demand for rare earths, methods of exploration, environmental concerns and some technological aspects.

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The rare earth element (REE) mineralisation potential of highly fractionated rhyolites: A potential low-grade, bulk tonnage source of critical metals

Ore Geology Reviews ◽

10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.02.027 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 86 ◽

pp. 548-562 ◽

Cited By ~ 16

Author(s):

Simon M. Jowitt ◽

Chris C. Medlin ◽

Ray A.F. Cas

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Rare Earth Element ◽

Earth Element ◽

Low Grade ◽

Critical Metals ◽

Mineralisation Potential ◽

The Rare Earth

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Valorization of Rare Earth Elements from a Steenstrupine Concentrate Via a Combined Hydrometallurgical and Pyrometallurgical Method

Minerals ◽

10.3390/min10030248 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 248 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Yunbo Yun ◽

Srecko Stopic ◽

Bernd Friedrich

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Rare Earth Elements ◽

Silica Gel ◽

Rare Earth Oxide ◽

Research Strategy ◽

High Tech ◽

Gel Formation ◽

Critical Metals ◽

Main Challenge ◽

New Research

Due to their unique characteristics, Lanthanides series (15 elements) together with scandium and yttrium are used as critical metals in numerous applications such as energy sources, catalysts, hybrid cars, medical technology, and military industry. The significance of rare earth elements has been continuously increasing because the global demand for producing high-tech devices is continuously rising. The recovery of rare earth oxide from concentrate based on eudialyte and steenstrupine was performed using a hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical method. Eudialyte and steenstrupine are a complex Na-Ca-zirconosilicate mineral containing rare earth elements (REEs), Zr, Hf and Nb, thus serving as a potential source of Zr. Because of the presence of silica in eudialyte, the main challenge in its processing is avoiding silica gel formation, which is an unfilterable solid residue. The influence of leaching temperature, time and solid–liquid ratio on leaching efficiency was studied in laboratory conditions. A new research strategy was developed in order to recover rare earth elements using hydrochloric acid, avoiding silica gel formation.

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Preliminary Economic Feasibility Study of Ferromanganese Nodule Mining by Mechanical Lifting and Small-Scale Collectors

Minerals ◽

10.3390/min11121389 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. 1389

Author(s):

Sup Hong ◽

Hyung-Woo Kim ◽

Tae-Kyung Yeu ◽

Rei Arai ◽

Tetsuo Yamazaki

Keyword(s):

Environmental Impact ◽

Deep Sea ◽

Economic Feasibility ◽

Small Scale ◽

Ferromanganese Nodule ◽

Deep Sea Sediment ◽

Metal Source ◽

Environmental Considerations ◽

Bulk Scale ◽

Nodule Mining

Ferromanganese nodules have been recognized as a potential future metal source for over 50 years. Many research and development efforts have been conducted by many organizations. Most of the efforts have been concentrated into the mining technologies especially for hydraulic lifting through riser pipes with bulk-scale nodule collector. However, no commercial mining venture exists. Uncertainty in the economy of nodule mining is considered to be the reason for this. In order to improve the economy, a mining subsystem based on mechanical lifting and small-scale collectors is proposed and the preliminary economic feasibility is examined in this study. The benefit was at a favorable level compared with that using hydraulic lifting with bulk-scale collector. From the viewpoint of environmental impact assessment, environmental considerations of deep-sea sediment plume are explained.

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Specific Aspects in Assessing Economic Feasibility of Rare Earth Mining

WORLD OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT ◽

10.25205/2542-0429-2020-20-4-138-152 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 20 (4) ◽

pp. 138-152

Author(s):

V. Yatsenko

Keyword(s):

Rare Earth ◽

Rare Earth Elements ◽

Raw Materials ◽

Rapid Change ◽

Mineral Resources ◽

Economic Assessment ◽

Economic Feasibility ◽

Raw Material ◽

Material Sources ◽

Wide Range

An important up-to-date feature of the resources sector development is a rapid change of types and raw material sources as well as a wide range of conditions in which the processes of mineral resources development take place. The sources of rare earth elements are not an exception because the innovative nature of their development implies the use of new knowledge, technologies and approaches. Moreover, from an economic perspective, like any investment projects, such sources of raw materials require feasibility assessment and their investment effectiveness. Based on the above, the article analyzes an economic assessment of the development of new source of rare earth elements by the example of the Burann area of the Tomtor deposit in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

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