Abstract
To function effectively in O2 uptake, delivery and release, erythrocytes rely on sophisticated regulation of hemoglobin (Hb)-O2 affinity by allosteric modulators, especially 2,3-bisphophosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG). Earlier studies had shown that elevated erythrocyte 2,3-BPG level is correlated to increased availability of oxygen to tissues in high altitudes. However, nothing is known how 2,3-BPG is induced in high altitude. Recent study revealed that plasma adenosine is increased in patient and mice with sickle cell disease and elevated adenosine signaling via A2B receptor (ADORA2B) induces 2,3-BPG and thereby promotes deoxy-sickle hemoglobin and subsequent sickling. However, whether adenosine is induced and its effect in 2,3-BPG induction in high altitude are unknown. To address this question, we recruited 24 low-land volunteers and placed them in high altitude for different time points. Here we report that: 1) plasma adenosine, a molecule well known to be induced under hypoxia, is increased and its elevation is correlated to elevated erythrocyte 2,3-BPG levels and decreased Hb-O2 affinity; and 2) elevated plasma adenosine is correlated to increased circulating ecto-5’-nucleotidase (CD73), a key enzyme responsible for generation of extracellular adenosine. Similar to humans, increased circulating CD73 activity, plasma adenosine levels and erythrocyte 2,3-BPG and decreased Hb-O2 binding affinity were observed in wild type (WT) mice under hypoxia condition mimicking our human high altitude studies. Moreover, we found that hypoxia-induced increased plasma adenosine, erythrocyte 2,3-BPG and decreased Hb-O2 binding affinity were significantly attenuated in CD73-deficient mice (CD73-/-). As such, hypoxia-induced tissue injury and cell apoptosis were significantly elevated in CD73-/- mice compared to WT mice. Mechanistically, we provide both in vitro and in vivo genetic evidence that erythrocyte adenosine A2B receptor (ADORA2B) is essential for 2,3-BPG induction and subsequent O2 release. This finding led us to further discover that AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) functions downstream of ADORA2B underlying adenosine-induced 2,3-BPG induction and O2 release by direct phosphorylation of 2,3-BPG mutase, a key enzyme for 2,3-BPG production. Finally, we demonstrated that treatment of metformin, a FDA approved potent AMPK agonist, induced erythrocyte 2,3-BPG levels and triggered O2 release and thereby prevented hypoxia-induced tissue injury in both CD73-/- mice and erythrocyte specific ADORA2B-deficient mice. Overall, our studies have revealed that erythrocyte ADORA2B-mediated AMPK activation is a novel mechanism underlying hypoxia-induced 2,3-BPG levels and thereby highlight its beneficial role to prevent hypoxia-induced tissue injury.
Disclosures
No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.
Polyphenols Stimulate AMP-Activated Protein Kinase, Lower Lipids, and Inhibit Accelerated Atherosclerosis in Diabetic LDL Receptor-Deficient Mice
