Randomized trials in acute promyelocytic leukemia patients have shown that treatment with a combination of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) and arsenic trioxide (ATO) is superior in efficacy to monotherapy, with significantly decreased mortality. So far, there are little data available to explain the success of the ATRA and ATO combination treatment in molecular terms. We showed that ATRA- and ATO-treated cells had the same capacity for superoxide production, which was reduced by two-thirds in the combined treatment. Secreted inflammatory biomarkers (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [MCP-1], interleukin-1 beta [IL-1β] and tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α]) were significantly decreased and were further reduced in a transglutaminase 2 (TG2) expression-dependent manner. The amount of secreted TNF-α in the supernatant of NB4 TG2 knockout cells was close to 50 times lower than in ATRA-treated differentiated wild-type NB4 cells. The irreversible inhibitor of TG2 NC9 not only decreased reactive oxygen species production 28-fold, but decreased the concentration of MCP-1, IL-1β and TNF-α 8-, 15- and 61-fold, respectively in the combined ATRA + ATO-treated wild-type NB4 cell culture. We propose that atypical expression of TG2 leads to the generation of inflammation, which thereby serves as a potential target for the prevention of differentiation syndrome.
Transglutaminase-2 Is Involved in All-Trans Retinoic Acid-Induced Invasion and Matrix Metalloproteinases Expression of SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells via NF-κB Pathway