scholarly journals The increasing atmospheric burden of the greenhouse gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF<sub>6</sub>)

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (12) ◽  
pp. 7271-7290 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter G. Simmonds ◽  
Matthew Rigby ◽  
Alistair J. Manning ◽  
Sunyoung Park ◽  
Kieran M. Stanley ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Western Europe ◽  
Sulfur Hexafluoride ◽  
Electrical Power ◽  
Electric Power Industry ◽  
Electrical Equipment ◽  
Industrial Applications ◽  
Potential Contribution ◽  
Emission Rates ◽  
Global Emission ◽  
History Of

Abstract. We report a 40-year history of SF6 atmospheric mole fractions measured at the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) monitoring sites, combined with archived air samples, to determine emission estimates from 1978 to 2018. Previously we reported a global emission rate of 7.3±0.6 Gg yr−1 in 2008 and over the past decade emissions have continued to increase by about 24 % to 9.04±0.35 Gg yr−1 in 2018. We show that changing patterns in SF6 consumption from developed (Kyoto Protocol Annex-1) to developing countries (non-Annex-1) and the rapid global expansion of the electric power industry, mainly in Asia, have increased the demand for SF6-insulated switchgear, circuit breakers, and transformers. The large bank of SF6 sequestered in this electrical equipment provides a substantial source of emissions from maintenance, replacement, and continuous leakage. Other emissive sources of SF6 occur from the magnesium, aluminium, and electronics industries as well as more minor industrial applications. More recently, reported emissions, including those from electrical equipment and metal industries, primarily in the Annex-1 countries, have declined steadily through substitution of alternative blanketing gases and technological improvements in less emissive equipment and more efficient industrial practices. Nevertheless, there are still demands for SF6 in Annex-1 countries due to economic growth, as well as continuing emissions from older equipment and additional emissions from newly installed SF6-insulated electrical equipment, although at low emission rates. In addition, in the non-Annex-1 countries, SF6 emissions have increased due to an expansion in the growth of the electrical power, metal, and electronics industries to support their continuing development. There is an annual difference of 2.5–5 Gg yr−1 (1990–2018) between our modelled top-down emissions and the UNFCCC-reported bottom-up emissions (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), which we attempt to reconcile through analysis of the potential contribution of emissions from the various industrial applications which use SF6. We also investigate regional emissions in East Asia (China, S. Korea) and western Europe and their respective contributions to the global atmospheric SF6 inventory. On an average annual basis, our estimated emissions from the whole of China are approximately 10 times greater than emissions from western Europe. In 2018, our modelled Chinese and western European emissions accounted for ∼36 % and 3.1 %, respectively, of our global SF6 emissions estimate.

scholarly journals The increasing atmospheric burden of the greenhouse gas sulfur hexafluoride (SF<sub>6</sub>)

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter G. Simmonds ◽  
Matthew Rigby ◽  
Alistair J. Manning ◽  
Sunyoung Park ◽  
Kieran M. Stanley ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Western Europe ◽  
Sulfur Hexafluoride ◽  
Electrical Power ◽  
Electric Power Industry ◽  
Electrical Equipment ◽  
Industrial Applications ◽  
Potential Contribution ◽  
Global Emission ◽  
History Of ◽  
Technological Improvements

Abstract. We report a 40-year history of SF6 atmospheric mole fractions measured at the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) monitoring sites, combined with archived air samples to determine emission estimates from 1978–2018. Previously we reported a global emission rate of 7.3 ± 0.6 Gigagrams (Gg) yr−1 in 2008 and over the past decade emissions have continued to increase by about 24 % to 9.04 ± 0.35 Gg yr−1 in 2018. We show that changing patterns in SF6 consumption from developed (Kyoto Protocol Annex-1) to developing countries (non-Annex-1) and the rapid global expansion of the electric power industry, mainly in Asia, have increased the demand for SF6-insulated switchgear, circuit breakers and transformers. The large bank of SF6 sequestered in this electrical equipment provides a substantial source of emissions from maintenance, replacement and continuous leakage. Other emissive sources of SF6 occur from the magnesium, aluminium, electronics industries and more minor industrial applications. More recently, reported emissions, including those from electrical equipment and metal industries, primarily in the Annex-1 countries, have steadily declined through substitution of alternative blanketing gases and technological improvements in less emissive equipment and more efficient industrial practices. Conversely, in the non-Annex-1 countries SF6 emissions have increased due to an expansion in the growth of the electrical power, metal and electronics industries to support their development. There is an annual difference of 2.5–5 Gg yr−1 (1990–2018) between our modelled top-down emissions and the UNFCCC reported bottom-up emissions, which we attempt to reconcile through analysis of the potential contribution of emissions from the various industrial applications which use SF6. We also investigate regional emissions in East Asia (China, S. Korea) and Western Europe and their respective contributions to the global atmospheric SF6 inventory. On an average annual basis, our estimated emissions from the whole of China are approximately 10 times greater than emissions from Western Europe. In 2018, our modelled Chinese and Western European emissions accounted for ~ 36 % and 3.1 %, respectively, of our global SF6 emissions estimate.

scholarly journals Design Practices in Harmonic Analysis Studies Applied to Industrial Electrical Power Systems

2013 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 467-472 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. F. Mekhamer ◽  
A. Y. Abdelaziz ◽  
S. M. Ismael
Keyword(s):  
Power Systems ◽  
Harmonic Analysis ◽  
Electrical Power ◽  
Electrical Equipment ◽  
Industrial Sector ◽  
Industrial Applications ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Design Engineers ◽  
Power System Harmonics ◽  
Harmonic Study

Power system harmonics may cause several problems, such as malfunctions of electrical equipment, premature equipment failures and plant shutdowns. Accordingly, mitigation of these harmonics is considered an important target especially for industrial applications where any short downtime period may lead to great economic losses. Harmonic analysis studies are necessary to analyze the current and voltage harmonic levels and check if these levels comply with the contractual or international standard limits. If the studies reveal that the preset limits are exceeded, then a suitable harmonic mitigation technique should be installed. Harmonic analysis studies in the industrial electrical systems are discussed in many references. However, a comprehensive procedure for the steps required to perform a harmonic study is rarely found in the literature even though it is strongly needed for design engineers. This paper provides a comprehensive procedure for the steps required to perform a harmonic study in the form of a flowchart, based on industrial research and experience. Hence, this paper may be considered as a helpful guide for design engineers and consultants of the industrial sector.

scholarly journals History of atmospheric SF<sub>6</sub> from 1973 to 2008

2010 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 13519-13555
Author(s):  
M. Rigby ◽  
J. Mühle ◽  
B. R. Miller ◽  
R. G. Prinn ◽  
P. B. Krummel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Rate ◽  
Sulfur Hexafluoride ◽  
Transport Model ◽  
In Situ Monitoring ◽  
Electron Capture Detection ◽  
Monitoring Site ◽  
Emission Rates ◽  
Chemical Transport Model ◽  
History Of ◽  
Global Emissions

Abstract. We present atmospheric sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) mole fractions and emissions estimates from the 1970s to 2008. Measurements were made of archived air samples starting from 1973 in the Northern Hemisphere and from 1978 in the Southern Hemisphere, using the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric (GC-MS) systems. These measurements were combined with modern high-frequency GC-MS and GC-electron capture detection (ECD) data from AGAGE monitoring sites, to produce a unique air history of this potent greenhouse gas. Atmospheric mole fractions were found to have increased by more than an order of magnitude between 1973 and 2008. The 2008 growth rate was found to be the highest recorded, at 0.29 ± 0.02 pmol mol−1 yr−1. A three-dimensional chemical transport model and a minimum variance Bayesian inverse method was used to estimate annual emission rates using the measurements. Consistent with the mole fraction growth rate maximum, global emissions during 2008 were also found to be highest in the 1973–2008 period, reaching 7.5 ± 0.4 Ggyr−1 and surpassing the previous maximum in 1995. The 2008 values follow an increase in emissions of 50 ± 25% since 2000. A second global inversion which also incorporated National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) flask measurements and in situ monitoring site data was found to agree well with the emissions derived using AGAGE measurements alone. By estimating continent-scale emissions using all available AGAGE and NOAA surface measurements covering the period 2004–2008, we find that it is likely that much of the global emissions rise during this five-year period originated primarily from Asian countries that do not report emissions to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). We also find it likely that SF6 emissions reported to the UNFCCC were underestimated between at least 2004 and 2007.

History of the Modern Music of Western Europe

2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raphael Georg Kiesewetter ◽  
Robert Muller
Keyword(s):  
Western Europe ◽  
Modern Music ◽  
History Of

THE HISTORY OF CATHOLICISM IN BASHKORTOSTAN: A BRIEF HISTORIOGRAPHIC OVERVIEW

2020 ◽  
Vol 0 (4) ◽  
pp. 89-95
Author(s):  
F.A. KRYZHANOVSKY ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Catholic Church ◽  
Social Stratification ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Forced Migration ◽  
Religious Community ◽  
General Nature ◽  
South Urals ◽  
The South ◽  
Middle Volga Region ◽  
History Of

The article examines the main publications covering the centuries-old history of the Catholic Church in the lands of modern Bashkortostan, as well as partly affecting the interaction of local Catholic communities with coreligionists from other cities located in the South Urals, as well as in the Middle Volga region. Unfortunately, there are quite a few special studies on the history of this Christian denomination in our republic. Many works, in one way or another related to this issue, are of a general nature and contain a schematic listing of factual information, or are more devoted to the history of national communities, for which this religion is, to a certain extent, one of the most important elements of traditional ethnic culture. Here it is necessary to note, first of all, publications on the history of the Polish and German diaspora, which provide information about the participation of representatives of these communities in the creation of Catholic parishes and public associations associated with charity and education. At the same time, the significance of the confessional aspect is to a much lesser extent revealed in works on the history of Latvian immigrants from Latgale, Belarusians and Ukrainians from Volyn and Eastern Galicia, who, due to various circumstances, left their homes during the First World War, as well as other Catholic emigrants from Central and Western Europe, located in the Ufa province at the beginning of the XX century. In some articles on demography and striking features of social stratification, one can find indirect references to the presence of Catholics, but this information only It is noteworthy that most publications indicate the middle of the 17th century as the earliest dating of the appearance of believing Catholics in the South Urals, and evidence of missionary trips to the Eastern Hungarians during the 13th-15th centuries allows us to make hypothetical assumptions about their role in the life of the local religious community. It can be noted that the presence of a certain part of Catholics on the territory of Bashkiria during the 16th20th centuries. was associated with forced migration due to the fact that, as a result of military clashes, some of them were captured, as well as due to participation in activities that conflicted with the interests of the Russian leadership are considered, with a few exceptions, only in the context of the problem of the origin of the Bashkir people, most likely due to the modest results of the preaching.

Conclusion

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ildar Garipzanov
Keyword(s):  
Cultural History ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Late Antiquity ◽  
Western Europe ◽  
Dominant Role ◽  
Ninth Century ◽  
Sources Of Authority ◽  
History Of ◽  
Historical Periods

The concluding chapter highlights how the cultural history of graphic signs of authority in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages encapsulated the profound transformation of political culture in the Mediterranean and Europe from approximately the fourth to ninth centuries. It also reflects on the transcendent sources of authority in these historical periods, and the role of graphic signs in highlighting this connection. Finally, it warns that, despite the apparent dominant role of the sign of the cross and cruciform graphic devices in providing access to transcendent protection and support in ninth-century Western Europe, some people could still employ alternative graphic signs deriving from older occult traditions in their recourse to transcendent powers.

scholarly journals Direct dating reveals the early history of opium poppy in western Europe

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Aurélie Salavert ◽  
Antoine Zazzo ◽  
Lucie Martin ◽  
Ferran Antolín ◽  
Caroline Gauthier ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Western Europe ◽  
Western Alps ◽  
Western Mediterranean ◽  
Opium Poppy ◽  
Radiocarbon Dates ◽  
Macrobotanical Remains ◽  
History Of ◽  
Temperate Europe ◽  
Radiocarbon Chronology ◽  
Botanical Remains

AbstractThis paper aims to define the first chrono-cultural framework on the domestication and early diffusion of the opium poppy using small-sized botanical remains from archaeological sites, opening the way to directly date minute short-lived botanical samples. We produced the initial set of radiocarbon dates directly from the opium poppy remains of eleven Neolithic sites (5900–3500 cal BCE) in the central and western Mediterranean, northwestern temperate Europe, and the western Alps. When possible, we also dated the macrobotanical remains originating from the same sediment sample. In total, 22 samples were taken into account, including 12 dates directly obtained from opium poppy remains. The radiocarbon chronology ranges from 5622 to 4050 cal BCE. The results show that opium poppy is present from at least the middle of the sixth millennium in the Mediterranean, where it possibly grew naturally and was cultivated by pioneer Neolithic communities. Its dispersal outside of its native area was early, being found west of the Rhine in 5300–5200 cal BCE. It was introduced to the western Alps around 5000–4800 cal BCE, becoming widespread from the second half of the fifth millennium. This research evidences different rhythms in the introduction of opium poppy in western Europe.

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