The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products

Abstract. National water use accounts are generally limited to statistics on water withdrawals in the different sectors of economy. They are restricted to "blue water accounts" related to production, thus excluding (a) "green" and "grey water accounts", (b) accounts of internal and international virtual water flows and (c) water accounts related to consumption. This paper shows how national water-use accounts can be extended through an example for Indonesia. The study quantifies interprovincial virtual water flows related to trade in crop products and assesses the green, blue and grey water footprint related to the consumption of crop products per Indonesian province. The study shows that the average water footprint in Indonesia insofar related to consumption of crop products is 1131 m3/cap/yr, but provincial water footprints vary between 859 and 1895 m3/cap/yr. Java, the most water-scarce island, has a net virtual water import and the most significant external water footprint. This large external water footprint is releasing the water scarcity on this island. There are two alternative routes to reduce the overall water footprint of Indonesia. On the one hand, it may be reduced by promoting wise crop trade between provinces – i.e. trade from places with high to places with low water efficiency. On the other hand, the water footprint can be reduced by improving water efficiency in those places that currently have relatively low efficiency, which equalises production efficiencies and thus reduces the need for imports and enhances the opportunities for exports. In any case, trade will remain necessary to supply food to the most densely populated areas where water scarcity is highest (Java).

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The Water Footprint of European Agricultural Imports: Hotspots in the Context of Water Scarcity

Resources ◽

10.3390/resources8030141 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 8 (3) ◽

pp. 141 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Iulia Dolganova ◽

Natalia Mikosch ◽

Markus Berger ◽

Montserrat Núñez ◽

Andrea Müller-Frank ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Water Consumption ◽

Water Scarcity ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Virtual Water ◽

The United States ◽

The European Union ◽

Product Categories ◽

External Water ◽

Agricultural Imports ◽

Water Scarce

This study investigates the Water Footprint (WF) resulting from the agricultural imports of the European Union (EU-28). Import trade statistics were compiled and linked with crop- and country-specific water consumption data and water scarcity factors. Within the study, the virtual water imports of 104 agricultural commodities for the baseline year 2015 were assessed and product and country hotspots were evaluated. It was shown that (a) Europe imported 100 million tons of agricultural goods and 11 km3 of associated virtual irrigation water; (b) the highest impacts of water consumption do not necessarily result from high import amounts, but from water-intensive goods produced in water scarce countries; (c) the largest external EU-28 water footprint occurred due to the product categories cotton, nuts and rice; and (d) the highest share of the EU external water footprint took place in the United States (US), Pakistan, Turkey, Egypt and India.

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Water saving through international trade of agricultural products

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences ◽

10.5194/hess-10-455-2006 ◽

2006 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 455-468 ◽

Cited By ~ 250

Author(s):

A. K. Chapagain ◽

A. Y. Hoekstra ◽

H. H. G. Savenije

Keyword(s):

Water Resources ◽

Water Use ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Saving ◽

Agricultural Products ◽

Green Water ◽

Blue Water ◽

Water Flows ◽

Global Water ◽

National Water

Abstract. Many nations save domestic water resources by importing water-intensive products and exporting commodities that are less water intensive. National water saving through the import of a product can imply saving water at a global level if the flow is from sites with high to sites with low water productivity. The paper analyses the consequences of international virtual water flows on the global and national water budgets. The assessment shows that the total amount of water that would have been required in the importing countries if all imported agricultural products would have been produced domestically is 1605 Gm3/yr. These products are however being produced with only 1253 Gm3/yr in the exporting countries, saving global water resources by 352 Gm3/yr. This saving is 28 per cent of the international virtual water flows related to the trade of agricultural products and 6 per cent of the global water use in agriculture. National policy makers are however not interested in global water savings but in the status of national water resources. Egypt imports wheat and in doing so saves 3.6 Gm3/yr of its national water resources. Water use for producing export commodities can be beneficial, as for instance in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Brazil, where the use of green water resources (mainly through rain-fed agriculture) for the production of stimulant crops for export has a positive economic impact on the national economy. However, export of 28 Gm3/yr of national water from Thailand related to rice export is at the cost of additional pressure on its blue water resources. Importing a product which has a relatively high ratio of green to blue virtual water content saves global blue water resources that generally have a higher opportunity cost than green water.

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Analysis of virtual water flows associated with the trade of maize in the SADC region: importance of scale

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences ◽

10.5194/hess-13-1967-2009 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 13 (10) ◽

pp. 1967-1977 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

J. M. Dabrowski ◽

E. Masekoameng ◽

P. J. Ashton

Keyword(s):

South Africa ◽

Water Use Efficiency ◽

Water Content ◽

Water Use ◽

Water Scarcity ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Blue Water ◽

Maize Production ◽

Water Flows ◽

Use Efficiency

Abstract. The concept of virtual water encourages a country to view agricultural crops in terms of the amount of water required to produce those crops, with a view to implementing trading policies that promote the saving of scarce water resources. Recently, increased attention has focussed on partitioning the virtual water content of crops into green and blue water (derived from rainfall and irrigation, respectively) as the latter has higher opportunity costs associated with its use and therefore impacts directly on scarcity. Maize is the most important crop traded within the SADC region. South Africa is the largest producer and exporter of maize, with the majority of its exports destined for other SADC countries. In comparison to other SADC countries, South Africa produces maize relatively efficiently, with a low virtual water content and a high green (868 m3 t−1) to blue (117 m3 t−1) water ratio. The blue water content is however higher than for maize produced in all other SADC countries, with the exception of Namibia (211 m3 t−1). Current trade patterns therefore result in a net expenditure of blue water (66×106 m3), almost all of which is exported by South Africa (65×106 m3). South Africa is one of the most water scarce countries in the region and analysis of virtual water flows indicates that current SADC maize trading patterns are influenced by national productivity as opposed to water scarcity. The virtual water content of maize was estimated for each of South Africa's nineteen Water Management Area's (WMA) and used as a proxy to represent water use efficiency for maize production. The virtual water content varied widely across all of the WMAs, ranging from 360 m3 t−1 in the Ustutu Mhlatuze to 1000 m3 t−1 in the Limpopo. A comparison of the virtual water content and production of maize (expressed as a percentage of the total national production) identified those WMAs where maize production is highly water inefficient (e.g. Lower Orange and Limpopo WMAs). Results suggest that, while a national estimate of the virtual water content of a crop may indicate a relatively efficient use of water, an analysis of the virtual water content at smaller scales can reveal inefficient use of water for the same crop. Therefore, analysis of the virtual water content of crops and trading of agricultural products at different spatial scales (i.e. regional, national and WMA) could be an important consideration within the context of water allocation, water use efficiency and alleviation of water scarcity.

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Globalization of agricultural pollution due to international trade

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences ◽

10.5194/hess-18-503-2014 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 18 (2) ◽

pp. 503-510 ◽

Cited By ~ 31

Author(s):

C. O'Bannon ◽

J. Carr ◽

D. A. Seekell ◽

P. D'Odorico

Keyword(s):

International Trade ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Transfer ◽

Global Network ◽

Environmental Costs ◽

Grey Water ◽

Water Transfers ◽

Nitrogen Concentrations ◽

Water Scarce

Abstract. Almost 90% of freshwater resources consumed globally are used to produce plant and animal commodities. Water-scarce countries can balance their water needs by importing food from other countries. This process, known as virtual water transfer, represents the externalization of water use. The volume and geographic reach of virtual water transfers is increasing, but little is known about how these transfers redistribute the environmental costs of agricultural production. The grey water footprint quantifies the environmental costs of virtual water transfers. The grey water footprint is calculated as the amount of water necessary to reduce nitrogen concentrations from fertilizers and pesticides released into streams and aquifers to allowed standards. We reconstructed the global network of virtual grey water transfers for the period 1986–2010 based on international trade data and grey water footprints for 309 commodities. We tracked changes in the structure of the grey water transfer network with network and inequality statistics. Pollution is increasing and is becoming more strongly concentrated in only a handful of countries. The global external grey water footprint, the pollution created by countries outside of their borders, increased 136% during the period. The extent of externalization of pollution is highly unequal between countries, and most of this inequality is due to differences in social development status. Our results demonstrate a growing globalization of pollution due to virtual water transfers.

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Analysis of virtual water flows associated with the trade of maize in the SADC region: importance of scale

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions ◽

10.5194/hessd-5-2727-2008 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 5 (5) ◽

pp. 2727-2757 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

J. M. Dabrowski ◽

E. Masekoameng ◽

P. J. Ashton

Keyword(s):

South Africa ◽

Water Use Efficiency ◽

Water Content ◽

Water Use ◽

Water Scarcity ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Blue Water ◽

Maize Production ◽

Water Flows ◽

Use Efficiency

Abstract. The concept of virtual water encourages a country to view agricultural crops in terms of the amount of water required to produce those crops, with a view to implementing trading policies that promote the saving of scarce water resources. Recently, increased attention has focussed on partitioning the virtual water content of crops into green and blue water (derived from rainfall and irrigation, respectively) as the latter has higher opportunity costs associated with its use and therefore impacts directly on scarcity. Maize is the most important crop traded within the SADC region. South Africa is the largest producer and exporter of maize, with the majority of its exports destined for other SADC countries. In comparison to other SADC countries, South Africa produces maize relatively efficiently, with a low virtual water content and a high green (868 m3 tonne−1) to blue (117 m3 tonne−1) water ratio. The blue water content is however higher than for maize produced in all other SADC countries, with the exception of Namibia (211 m3 tonne−1). Current trade patterns therefore result in a net expenditure of blue water (66×106 m3), almost all of which is exported by South Africa (65×106 m3). South Africa is one of the most water scarce countries in the region and analysis of virtual water flows indicates that current SADC maize trading patterns are influenced by national productivity as opposed to water scarcity. The virtual water content of maize was estimated for each of South Africa's nineteen Water Management Area's (WMA) and used as a proxy to represent water use efficiency for maize production. The virtual water content varied widely across all of the WMAs, ranging from 360 m3 tonne-1 in the Ustutu Mhlatuze to 1000 m3 tonne−1 in the Limpopo. A comparison of the virtual water content and production of maize (expressed as a percentage of the total national production) identified those WMAs where maize production is highly water inefficient (e.g. Lower Orange and Limpopo WMAs). Results suggest that, while a national estimate of the virtual water content of a crop may indicate a relatively efficient use of water, an analysis of the virtual water content at smaller scales can reveal inefficient use of water for the same crop. Therefore, analysis of the virtual water content of crops and trading of agricultural products at different spatial scales (i.e. regional, national and WMA) could be an important consideration within the context of water allocation, water use efficiency and alleviation of water scarcity.

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Globalization of agricultural pollution due to international trade

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions ◽

10.5194/hessd-10-11221-2013 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 10 (8) ◽

pp. 11221-11239 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

C. O'Bannon ◽

J. Carr ◽

D. A. Seekell ◽

P. D'Odorico

Keyword(s):

Agricultural Production ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Transfer ◽

Global Network ◽

Environmental Costs ◽

Grey Water ◽

Water Transfers ◽

Water Scarce ◽

Produce Plant

Abstract. Almost 90% of freshwater resources consumed globally are used to produce plant and animal commodities. Water scarce countries can balance their water needs by importing food from other countries. This process, known as virtual water transfer, represents the externalization of water use. The volume and geographic reach of virtual water transfers is increasing, but little is known about how these transfers redistribute the environmental costs of agricultural production. The grey water footprint quantifies the environmental costs of virtual water transfers. The grey water footprint is calculated as the amount of water necessary to reduce the concentrations of fertilizers and pesticides released in streams and aquifers to the allowed standards. We reconstructed the global network of virtual grey water transfers for the period 1986–2010 based on global trade data and grey water footprints for 309 commodities. We tracked changes in the structure of the grey water transfer network with network and inequality statistics. Pollution is increasing and is becoming more strongly concentrated in only a handful of countries. The global external grey water footprint, the pollution created by countries outside of their borders, increased 136% during the period. The extent of externalization of pollution is highly unequal between countries and most of this inequality is due to differences in social development status. Our results demonstrate a growing globalization of pollution due to virtual water transfers.

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Water Footprint and Virtual Water Trade of Cash Crops

Examining the Intersection of Circular Economy, Forestry, and International Trade - Advances in Finance, Accounting, and Economics ◽

10.4018/978-1-7998-4990-2.ch015 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 174-194

Author(s):

Sunakshi Budhiraja ◽

Sukanya Das ◽

Badri Narayanan Gopala Krishnan

Keyword(s):

Water Scarcity ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Agricultural Practices ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Virtual Water Trade ◽

Water Flows ◽

Cash Crops ◽

Viable Solution ◽

Sustainable Agricultural Practices ◽

Opening Up

Virtual water flows (VWF) among states or countries have been proposed as a viable solution to mitigate water scarcity. The aim of this study is to assess the virtual water content and flows from India, for six cash crops, coffee, cotton, jute, sugarcane, tea, and tobacco, and their derived products over a period 1980-2013. The virtual water trade (VWT) estimates across three time periods show India to be a net exporter of virtual water for all the cash crops, except jute. The quantity of virtual water traded has increased over the decades with the increase in the quantum of crops traded. With free trade policies and the opening up of the economy, export quantities increased during the 1990s and the period thereafter, leading to larger virtual water exports. Sustainable agricultural practices for all crops, and in all countries, can help in reducing the water flow of these crops and help in controlling the water scarcity solution.

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Water saving through international trade of agricultural products

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions ◽

10.5194/hessd-2-2219-2005 ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 2 (6) ◽

pp. 2219-2251 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

A. K. Chapagain ◽

A. Y. Hoekstra ◽

H. H. G. Savenije

Keyword(s):

Water Resources ◽

Water Use ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Water Saving ◽

Agricultural Products ◽

Green Water ◽

Blue Water ◽

Water Flows ◽

Global Water ◽

National Water

Abstract. Many nations save domestic water resources by importing water-intensive products and exporting commodities that are less water intensive. National water saving through the import of a product can imply saving water at a global level if the flow is from sites with high to sites with low water productivity. The paper analyses the consequences of international virtual water flows on the global and national water budgets. The assessment shows that the total amount of water that would have been required in the importing countries if all imported agricultural products would have been produced domestically is 1605 Gm3/yr. These products are however being produced with only 1253 Gm3/yr in the exporting countries, saving global water resources by 352 Gm3/yr. This saving is 28% of the international virtual water flows related to the trade of agricultural products and 6% of the global water use in agriculture. National policy makers are however not interested in global water savings but in the status of national water resources. Egypt imports wheat and in doing so saves 3.6 Gm3/yr of its national water resources. Water use for producing export commodities can be beneficial, as for instance in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana and Brazil, where the use of green water resources (mainly through rain-fed agriculture) for the production of stimulant crops for export has a positive economic impact on the national economy. However, export of 28 Gm3/yr of national water from Thailand related to rice export is at the cost of additional pressure on its blue water resources. Importing a product which has a relatively high ratio of green to blue virtual water content saves global blue water resources that generally have a higher opportunity cost than green water.

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Water–Food Nexus through the Lens of Virtual Water Flows: The Case of India

Water ◽

10.3390/w13060768 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (6) ◽

pp. 768

Author(s):

Suparana Katyaini ◽

Mimika Mukherjee ◽

Anamika Barua

Keyword(s):

Water Scarcity ◽

Environmental Governance ◽

Water Footprint ◽

Flow Analysis ◽

Water Security ◽

Virtual Water ◽

Governance Systems ◽

Complex Relationships ◽

Water And Soil Pollution ◽

Water Scarce

For a water-secure present and future, there is a need for a transition from water scarcity towards water security. This transition necessitates a look at the complex relationships, and interdependencies, between water and other resources, and the institutions governing them. Nexus approach encompasses these interdependencies. This paper focused on the water–food nexus through the lens of the virtual water (VW) flows concept with the aim to explore the role of the VW flows concept in governing the transition towards water security in a water-scarce economy like India. The key findings of the paper suggests that the highest VW outflows are from highly water-scarce states of India, such as Punjab and Andhra Pradesh, and the moderate to highly water-scarce state West Bengal from 1996–2014. Major VW outflows from these states are to other highly water-scarce states, resulting in the concentration of water scarcity. The main priorities for the governance of the water–food nexus in these states emerge from policies and action plans. These priorities are groundwater overexploitation, water and soil pollution, and uncertainty in rainfall and are linked to agricultural intensification. The water footprint-based VW flow analysis has important insights for sustainable intensification of agriculture, and rectification of the unsustainable VW flow patterns. The study concludes that the VW flows concept embodies the water–food nexus and is particularly relevant for the sustainable future of developing and emerging economies, such as India, grappling with water scarcity and challenges of fragmented environmental governance systems.

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