Forest governance and development effects on tropical charcoal production and deforestation

Severe loss and degradation of tropical forests affects ecosystem services and livelihoods. Charcoal, an important energy and income source for millions of people, causes 7% of tropical deforestation and forest degradation. Forest governance aims at managing forest-related issues. On the one hand, development allows for financial investments in forest governance, e.g., in monitoring and enforcement, which the aim to control deforestation. On the other hand, deforestation often continues with increased human wellbeing. Here, we aim to (i) globally examine effects of forest governance on charcoal production and deforestation, and (ii) understand its association with development. We developed a typology of tropical forest governance systems based on a literature review of 54 USAID Country Profiles and combined it with global data on charcoal production, deforestation, governance quality and development. Our results suggest that countries’ development status affects charcoal production rather than governance quality; we observe a negative relationship between development status and charcoal production per capita (HDI: F(1,50) = 4.85, p = 0.032; GNI: F(1,50) = 4.64, p = 0.036). The limited influence of governance quality and rights on charcoal production per capita and deforestation suggests mismatches between formal and informal governance and exposes challenges in top-down percolation of governance goals. Our results highlight potential importance of tenure rights and potential opportunities for regional governing bodies to bridge local formal and informal actors to improve forest governance. Positive effects of regional tenure are driven by mixed effects of high development and governance quality related to decentralization in Asia and South America, highlighting transitions from charcoal as livelihood energy source to global commodity. Variability in results for FAO and UN charcoal production data advocates for better monitoring programs. Yet, for the first time, we explore global interactive patterns in charcoal production, development and governance – a starting point to differentiate good governance.

Outlook for the biomass energy sector in Mozambique: Policies and their challenges

To overcome the negative impacts of unsustainable exploitation of forest resources, the Mozambican government has been trying to regulate the supply and demand of biomass, the main source of energy for the majority of the population. This paper reviews policies implemented in Mozambique aimed at increasing domestic energy production while promoting a sustainable use of biomass. Despite the efforts to reduce the level of biomass energy use, it remains the most attractive to local populations and, therefore, still has great importance in the national energy mix. Thus, rather than looking at woodfuels as an environmental problem, regulations should also recognise the dependence of local communities on these resources. Firewood remains the main energy source in rural areas, and approximately 0.36% of the forest in Mozambique is lost every year. The replacement of firewood and charcoal by other renewable sources of energy is still far from reality. Charcoal production continues to be carried out in traditional low-yield ovens and the levels of forest degradation are still alarming. As such, improvements to the existing regulation framework are still needed.

Effect of Charcoal on the Properties, Enzyme Activities and Microbial Diversity of Temperate Pine Forest Soils

Relict charcoal hearths (RCHs) increases soil fertility in forest ecosystems. However, the effects of RCHs on the activity and abundance of soil microorganisms remain unknown. In this paper, we analysed the impact of relict charcoal production on the soil enzymatic activity and composition of soil bacterial and fungal communities in Scots pine forests of the Manowo Forest District in northern Poland. Moreover, we determined the effect of relict charcoal production on the soil properties. Our research was conducted by comparing the physical, chemical, enzymatic and microbiological properties of charcoal-enriched and charcoal-free soils. Significant differences in physical properties were found between these two soil types in terms of their structure and water holding capacity. As expected, horizons enriched with charcoal were characterised by a significantly higher organic carbon content (4.7% on average compared to 2.2% in control horizons), and also by a considerably higher content of available phosphorus (an average of 64.07 mg·kg−1 compared to 36.21 mg·kg−1 in the control). Similarly, RCH horizons displayed a higher pH and higher contents of Ca and Na cations. These results indicated that RCH soils provided more favourable conditions for the soil microbiome, as reflected by the higher enzymatic activity and diversity of the microorganisms. Moreover, bacterial and fungal communities in RCH soils were more diverse and had greater species/genera richness, especially in the case of fungi. Members of the genus Rhodoplanes dominated the bacterial community at both RCH and non-RCH sites, followed by Streptomyces, Burkholderia, Skermanella, Tsukamurella and Candidatus Solibacter. Both culture- and next generation sequencing (NGS)-based analyses showed that soil fungal communities were dominated by Ascomycota, with Penicillium as the most abundant genus. Our results showed that hearth soils may represent a significant C pool in the forest ecosystem. This study supports the strategy of safeguarding such charcoal-enriched soils as precious C reservoirs and ecologically important biodiversity hotspots. Moreover, the application of charcoal may effectively increase the microbial diversity of forest soils, especially during the reforestation or re-cultivation of disturbed habitats.

Mangroves Fueling Livelihoods: A Socio-Economic Stakeholder Analysis of the Charcoal and Pole Production Systems in the World’s Longest Managed Mangrove Forest

The declining mangrove cover worldwide highlights the necessity of understanding the linkages between ecological and socio-economic dimensions of mangrove management. This study analyses the socio-economic aspects of the pole and charcoal production systems at Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), known as the world’s longest managed mangrove forest, in Malaysia. We performed a socio-economic survey to identify the roles and relationships among stakeholders in the pole/charcoal production system and quantified the cash-flows in monetary value. Altogether, 160 interviews were conducted with contractors, forest officials, workers, middle-men, and consumers. The contractors are functioning as a “hub” from production to commercialization and receive major economic benefits. The commercialization of most charcoal (>80%) aims to its exportation to Japan while the commercialization of poles is local. Although the workers’ income was less than the minimum wage, they still prefer charcoal production jobs because of the availability and geographic proximity of these jobs. Our research suggests a standard salary and health insurance schemes for the workers to reduce social inequality/poverty and improve their well-being. Considering that mangroves occur in over 120 countries, our methodology can be used as a reference to unveil the socio-economic situation of mangrove-dependent communities as well as to map the economic cash-flow of the local activities that form the basis for long-term sustainable mangrove management plans.

Remote Sensing Based Quantification of Forest Cover Change in Somalia for the Period 2000 to 2019

Deforestation is a driver of land degradation and a major environmental problem in Somalia, and has been linked to frequent incidences of drought over the years. Monitoring of changes in forest cover is therefore critical for the country’s environment. The problem of land degradation has been worsened by the large scale charcoal production that is witnessed in the country. This study aimed at estimating forest cover change between 2000 and 2019 in Somalia using Landsat-based forest cover datasets. Google Earth Engine (GEE), a cloud based computing system was used to provide a platform for this analysis. Based on the 30% threshold recommended by International Geosphere Biosphere Program for differentiating forest from non-forest trees, approximately 23% forest cover loss was found, from 87, 294 hectares in 2000 to 67, 199 hectares in 2019. Most of the country’s forest is within the southern and central parts of the country, and significant forest cover losses occurred mainly around Mogadishu and Kismayo port throughout the study period. There is therefore a need for the Federal Ministry of Environment and environment ministries in the federal member states to design mechanisms and strategies for restoration of the degraded forests and to curb deforestation.