7. Immunities

Immunity is a procedural bar whereby the courts of a country are precluded, while the immunity persists, from entertaining a suit, civil or criminal, against a person or entity. This chapter distinguishes the personal from functional immunities and then goes on to demonstrate the difference between acts undertaken in a public capacity, which always attract immunity, and those undertaken in a private capacity, which do not, as a rule, attract immunity. The chapter shows that, in recent years, the characterization of an act as being of a public nature has been restricted by the practice of States and national courts.

Legal space as a form of organization of the physical environment of society

The article deals with the analysis of the legal space as an organizational form of the physical environment of society. It is established that in the legal space, it is the legal actions of the participants that bring to life a specific type of social relations, namely, legal relations, within which people are transformed into subjects of legal relations, participating as a plaintiff, defendant, seller, creditor, and debtor, rather than in a private capacity, acting out their dramatization of real actions according to the legal scenario. It is proved that the legal space represents an environment where the participants of legal communication face each other depersonalized rather than personally. It is determined that the legal space is a social structure of society, which is an element of the social, group, and individual legal consciousness, a phenomenon of the psyche, ideals, and legal culture.

7. Immunity

Immunity is a procedural bar whereby the courts of a country are precluded, while the immunity persists, from entertaining a suit, civil or criminal, against a person or entity. This chapter distinguishes personal from functional immunities and then goes on to demonstrate the difference between acts undertaken in a public capacity, which always attract immunity, and those undertaken in a private capacity, which do not as a rule attract immunity. The chapter shows that in recent years the characterization of an act as being of a public nature has been restricted by the practice of States and national courts.

Biased Policy Professionals

Although the decisions of policy professionals are often more consequential than those of individuals in their private capacity, there is a dearth of studies on the biases of policy professionals: those who prepare and implement policy on behalf of elected politicians. Experiments conducted on a novel subject pool of development policy professionals (public servants of the World Bank and the Department for International Development in the UK) show that policy professionals are indeed subject to decision-making traps, including the effects of framing outcomes as losses or gains, and, most strikingly, confirmation bias driven by ideological predisposition, despite having an explicit mission to promote evidence-informed and impartial decision making. These findings should worry policy professionals and their principals in governments and large organizations, as well as citizens themselves. A further experiment, in which policy professionals engage in discussion, shows that deliberation may be able to mitigate the effects of some of these biases.

Modern Technology and Women Empowerment in Pakistan

The issue of women rights violations is nothing new. However, the modes of tackling the menace has changed and gained momentum by many degrees. With advances in technology, these modes have assumed the semblance of a technological crusade for the cause of women rights. Pakistan, a patriarchal society to the core, has not been behind others in the use of smart technology for socio-economic safety and empowerment of women. Some of these efforts are directly sponsored by government; others are the initiatives by individuals and companies in private capacity. Though different in form and shape, these measures have a common goal to empower women socio-economically, give them necessary technical training, and/or stand by them when justice is impeded. The current chapter throws light on the spectrum of work being done to use technology as a vehicle to curb incidence of violation of women rights, strengthen women, and help them live honorably.

Secure Communication over Zero-Private Capacity Quantum Channels

In this work a new phenomenon called polaractivation is introduced. Polaractivation is based on quantum polar encoding and the result is similar to the superactivation effect — positive capacity can be achieved with zero-capacity quantum channels. However, polaractivation has many advantages over the superactivation: it is limited neither by any preliminary conditions on the quantum channel nor on the maps of other channels involved in the joint channel structure. We prove that the polaractivation works for arbitrary zero-private capacity quantum channels and we demonstrate, that the symmetric private classical capacity of arbitrary zero-private capacity quantum channels is polaractive.

7. Immunity

Immunity is a procedural bar whereby the courts of a country are precluded, while the immunity persists, from entertaining a suit, civil or criminal, against a person or entity. This chapter distinguishes personal from functional immunities and then goes on to demonstrate the difference between acts undertaken in a public capacity, which always attract immunity, and those undertaken in a private capacity, which do not as a rule attract immunity. The chapter shows that in recent years the characterization of an act as being of a public nature has been restricted by the practice of states and national courts.