Language, Truth, and Pedagogy

Early in the planning the Emory-Tibet Science Initiative, we realized that the encounter between Buddhism and contemporary science demanded that Buddhist logic and epistemology encounter Anglophone philosophy of science. A titanic clash of world views was anticipated, but as we began the conversation, we found something different. Many philosophical concerns were shared, but these problems were understood differently. While fundamental elements of epistemology, like observation and inference, had similar functions in both traditions, subtle differences in conceptualization challenged mutual intelligibility. Through thousands of years of erudite debate, each tradition had honed their tools. While each cut cleanly, they carved in different joints. This essay will briefly discuss the linguistic, philosophical, and pedagogical adjustments that made for mutual comprehensibility.

Ontology of the three worlds in the context of Buddhist philosophy

Dalai Lama notes that the Buddhist system of the objects of the realm largely coincides with such developed by Karl Popper. The subject of this article is ontology of the three worlds. The goal lies in analysis of the components of this ontology, demonstration of its prospects and advantages over dualism. First come matter or physical objects; second come mind, subjective reality; third come abstract concepts. Any object of reality is reduced to one of the three worlds and is refracted in a peculiar way in the other two. The third world is the mediator between others worlds; and the autonomous sphere that is not fully conditioned by them. We experience through representations, rather than directly, which is depicted in Buddhism as the image of a gloved hand. The knowledge concentrated in the third world contribute to development of consciousness. A thought experiment with the central and peripheral atoms reveal that there are no indivisible elements and everything exists in mutually dependent, while Buddhist logic substantiates that love and compassion can develop boundlessly. The concept of interdependent existence and non-substantiality of things draws Buddhism and quantum physics closer together. On the one hand, consciousness cannot be naturalized, reduced to matter; and on the other hand, it is inextricable from the energy processes. The conclusion is made that the three fundamental attributes of consciousness in Buddhism outlined by Thubten Gyats (13th Dalai Lama) – subjectivity, intentionality, and reflexivity, can be complemented by another two –  ability to continuously develop virtues, positive traits, and t interdependence between consciousness and subtle forms of matter. The three realms of Buddhism are such only on the phenomenal level; however, on the noumenal level, which unlike Buddhism is not recognized by Popper, is not the trinity, but the unity.

Philosophical Therapy Through Linguistic Construction

This paper makes attempts to argue that language inevitably affects emotions, and philosophical therapy is possible through deconstruction of language; here the horizon of language is extended not only to its traditional usage, but also as thoughts. Emotions are perceived through our conditioned thoughts and hence by an analysis of the latter, the former will become clearer. The paper is a literature review of a few books by Jiddu Krishnamurti, a contemporary Indian Philosopher; and a book on Buddhist logic. Since the paper is a literature review, it does not have any practical claim to support the points and hence is a speculative approach towards therapy. The paper also does not extend its claims to psychological views on language, rather restricts itself to purely philosophical approach.

Illuminating a Truth: Dṛṣṭānta and Huatou

In Chan/Seon/Zen (禪, hereafter referred to as Chan) Buddhism, the gongan (公案), a word that can be literally translated as “public case”, is conceived as both the tool by which enlightenment is brought about and an expression of the enlightened mind itself. Among the diverse styles of gongan, perhaps the most puzzling is a form of its key phrase, huatou (話頭), that utilizes specific things in the world. These things are either real and empirically observable, or conversely, unreal and merely hypothetical. A typical example is the figure of the “cypress tree in the front yard”. This paper tries to demonstrate that such a huatou has a structural similarity to the dṛṣṭānta (喩), an element within the three-part syllogism of Buddhist logic, insomuch as it functions as an epistemic instrument for the disclosing of a truth.

Dharmakīrti (c.600–60)

Dharmakīrti represents the philosophical apex of the Buddhist contribution to Indian thought of the post-systematic period. On the basis of Dignāga’s late works he developed a system of epistemology with a strong emphasis on logic, propounding it both as an explanation and defence of Dignāga’s thought. His logic, particularly, was new; in order to create a system of Buddhist logic proper, it clearly established the general Indian idea that logical relations are founded in reality. Buddhist epistemology as shaped by Dharmakīrti became a strong and influential rational tradition in late Indian Buddhism and has been studied and continued in Tibet up to the present time.

Tibetan philosophy

Tibetan philosophy – if we can make a rough separation between what is predominantly argument-oriented and analytical and what is more a question of ritual, devotion or vision – is best characterized as a form of scholasticism. It exhibits marked parallels with philosophy in Western medieval contexts, including a heavy emphasis on logic, philosophy of language and metaphysics, all in the service of exegesis of religious doctrine found in root texts. Just as in Western scholasticism, there is a reliance upon scripture, but within that traditional context there is also ample room for rational analysis and synthesis of potentially disparate doctrines, as well as a considerable quantity of argumentation which is a type of ‘fine tuning’ of Indian issues. Tibetan thinkers explored matters which are often of genuine importance in our understanding of Indian texts. In particular, in Mādhyamika Buddhist philosophy we find an important synthesis of Indian Yogācāra ideas with a relatively natural interpretation of key ideas in the literature on the Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha); we also find important debates on the nature of the two truths, the status of means of valid cognition (pramāṇas), and on questions of philosophical method, such as the possibility or impossibility of Mādhyamikas holding theses and themselves defending positions. Beginning with the Great Debate of bSam-yas (Samyay) in the latter part of the eighth century, we find constantly recurring reflection on questions concerning the nature of spiritual realizations and the role of conceptual and analytic thought in leading to such insights. In the logico-epistemological literature, the hotly debated issues generally centre around the problem of universals, the Indian Buddhist philosophy of language and the theory of the triply characterized logical reason (trirūpahetu). In addition, the Tibetans developed an elaborate logic of debate, an indigenous system containing many original elements unknown in or even alien to Indian Buddhist logic.

Buddhist Paths to Violence

This chapter charts potential Buddhist pathways to violence through doctrine, logic, and heuristics. The first section introduces examples from the Buddhist doctrine that provide spaces to justify violence. In the second section, doctrinal arguments find a way into Buddhist logic, as evidenced by the historical case studies of wars, such as Japanese Buddhists during the Russo-Japanese War of Sri Lankan Buddhists throughout the 26-year civil war against the Liberation Tamil Tigers of Eelam. Finally, the third section draws upon the work of psychologist Daniel Kahneman and his study of availability heuristics to examine the way Buddhists disavow some lives from their precept of nonviolence.