Inappropriate arguments as a communication technology: types, peculiarities, and countering mechanisms

This article is dedicated to such type of communication technology as inappropriate arguments. Special attention is given to clarification of the key concepts of the topic – “argumentation”, “appropriateness”, “inappropriateness”, and “context”. The original classification is provided to the types of inappropriate arguments. The author reveals the contextual peculiarities of using different types of inappropriate arguments; analyzes the specificity of using inappropriate arguments; as well as offers possible countering mechanisms. Particular examples of using incorrect arguments are confirmed by links to recorded live dialogues. The article employs the methods of intent analysis and comparative analysis. The Russian tradition of studying the theory and practice of argumentation features a number of research that touch upon the problem of inappropriate arguments. However, the study of arguments is just a part of the whole variety of communication technologies. The novelty of this work consists in the centralized, systematized presentation of the assemblage of variations of inappropriate arguments. The types of inappropriate arguments are illustrated on the specific examples from literature, cinematography, cultural -historical, social and political spheres of society. The acquired results can be valuable for the development of lecture courses on the theory and practice of argumentation, students majoring in philosophy, and audience interested in modern research dedicated to communication technologies.

Formation of the image of Buddhism in Russia (the end of the XIX – the beginning of the XX centuries)

This article examines the sources of formation of the image of Buddhism in the Russian cultural environment and determine the degree of representativeness of this image. The author highlights the three main sources: 1) academic research works of the Western Schools of Buddhology (based on Pāli and Sanskrit material); 2) research conducted within the framework of the Russian School of Buddhology (based primarily on Tibetan- and Mongolian-language material); 3) research of the Orthodox Russian missionaries. It is determined that the fundamental theoretical position developed by the Anglo-Germanic School of Buddhology is the thesis on authenticity of Theravada Buddhism, which is considered as “initial”, and its other forms (such as Mahayana, Vajrayana) are considered as its later modifications that emerged under the influence of external factors. The key features of Buddhism in Buddhology imply that: 1) Buddha Shakyamuni was not a transcendent being; 2) his nirvana is understood nihilistically, as a complete cessation of the process of being; 3) Buddhism, denies the existence of soul; 4) the existence of God and the representation of the transcendent are also denied. Despite the fact that the studies of Mahayana and Vajrayana material indicated inadequacy of such assessment, these theses were reproduced over again. This is explained by the interest of significant social groups in such image of Buddhism: many Orthodox figures interpreted Buddhism as a philosophical-ethical, rather than religious system; atheistically-oriented scholars and scientifically-oriented public also supported such interpretation. The rational aspects of Buddhism, which give common grounds with science, were uncritically absolutized; Buddhism was viewed as an ally of scientific thinking, completely alien to faith.

To be liberated the Vaisheshika way, or the Vaisheshika attempt at a «Negative Soteriology» by the Indian school of philosophy

The article examines the original concept of the Vaisheshika school, criticized by other Indian philosophers, according to which Self (Atman), freed from the bonds of rebirth (saṃsāra), is a pure substance (dravya), devoid of consciousness, which is believed to be its impermanent quality (guna); the opponents compared the Vaisheshika's liberated Self with a stone or a log. The author proposes an explanation of the Vaisheshika liberation doctrine (soteriology) within the framework of its categoriology, in which consciousness and Atman belong to different categories, respectively, guna and dravya. Vaisheshika proclaims knowledge of the six categories to be the highest spiritual goal (nihshreyasa), which, in turn, comes from the pure Dharma (Merit). The reason why the Vaisheshikas felt obliged to add a pure Dharma as the final step towards liberation (which distinguishes Vaisheshika from other schools, emphasizing the soteriological value of knowledge) is explained by assuming the Dharma's capacity to overcome a dichotomy of merit-demerit (dharma-adharma) as the main factor responsible for the rebirth of an embodied ātman. The pure Dharma, due to all the positive karmic energy accumulated during countless reincarnations of the soul, arises at the very last moment in a person's life to purufy his/her true Atman from the law of karma and rebirth. Since nothing can be said about Atman's future, it is not a "liberation for", but a "liberation from", which can be called a "negative soteriology".

Problems of time and space in the philosophy of Shūzō Kuki (1888 – 1941)

The subject of this research is the philosophy of Shūzō Kuki, which is usually associated with his original concept, built around the concept of iki that simultaneously denotes taste, wealth, sensibility, dignity, reserve, and spontaneity, as well as embodies the aesthetic ideal formed in urban culture of the Edo period (1603 – 1868). The Japanese philosopher is also notable for a number of other intellectual insights. For depicting a holistic image on the philosophical views of Shūzō Kuki, a more extensive array of his works is introduced into the scientific discourse. A significant part of these work have not been translated into the Russian or other foreign languages. This article explores the problems of time and space, which are cross-cutting in the works of Shūzō Kuki  using examples of such philosophical writings as the “Theory of Time”, “What is Anthropology?”, “Problems of Time. Bergson and Heidegger”, “Metaphysical Time”, "Problems of Casualty”. The research employs the method of historical-philosophical reconstruction and sequential textual analysis of sources. Special attention is given to the problems of cyclical time, correlation between the infinite and the finite, and its reflection in the literary or art works, existential-anthropological landscape of space and time, spatial-temporal aspect of casualty and relevance. The conclusion is made on the contribution of Shūzō Kuki to elaboration of the problems of space and time, namely his cross-cultural approach that allows viewing the general philosophical problems from the perspective of both Western and Eastern thought, as well as a distinct  “interdisciplinary” approach towards analysis of the phenomena of space and time, which are viewed from different perspective and acquire different characteristics depending on the angle and aspect of reality of the corresponding context. Thus, there is a variety of concepts of time, which do not eliminate, but complement each other.

Supremacy of theoretical thought over practical thought in Plato's political philosophy

Based on the example of Plato’s political philosophy, this article explores the phenomenon of supremacy of theoretical thought over practical thought, which is a universal trait of the classical Ancient Greek philosophical systems. The first part of the articled indicates the conceptual similarity of the two-level systems of knowledge of Plato and Aristotle in the role that theory plays in relation to practical thought. The second part of the article reconstructs the concept of Plato's philosophy of politics, outlines the key political strategies he dealt with, and provides analytical reconstruction of the democratic theory of politics, oligarchic and civil-political, where the latter is the reflection of Plato’s original political views. The final part is dedicated to the method of Plato's political philosophy. Analysis of the context of using the term “theory” by Plato allows reconstructing the key methodological characteristic of Plato's model of theoretical philosophy. The article also provides the typology of practical knowledge, and substantiates the reasons according to which the political philosophy, as one of the types of practical knowledge, had to adhere to the theoretical prescriptions that fully determined the content of political reflection. The paper reveals the central practical task of philosophical theory, which by Plato's plan was intended to cease the political strife in Athens using true knowledge. The thesis is substantiated that using theory, Plato sought to complete the history of practical politics and subsequently shift towards building the “ideal state” based on the laws that are mandatory for all citizens of the polis. The article also discloses the principles of complex interrelation of the three Socratic methods: irony, dialectics and maieutics, which in Plato's political philosophy manifested as a single complex method. It is demonstrated that the method fulfills a bonding function between theory and practice, which allows transferring the theoretical truth to the sphere of practical problems of politics.

Philosophical-political comprehension of Eurasia in the context of the Russian project of civilizational development

This article attempts to “objectify” and conceptualize the concept of “Eurasia”, determine its ontological characteristics as the sociopolitical space of development of the Russian civilizational project, as well as delineates the contours of this space within the framework of a project-constructive methodological orientation. The author refers to the history of formation of holistic representations on Eurasia within the scientific thought, giving special attention to the contribution of geopoliticians, and emphasizing the implementation of theoretical provisions in real politics. The empirical basis relies on the two megaprojects that are implemented in practice: the Silk Road Economic Belt initiated by China and the Eurasian Economic Union (which includes Armenia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Russia), as well as the “Greater Eurasia” as a potential way of their interlink and development of the space for cross-civilizational dialogue on the continent. The main conclusions are as follows: 1) Eurasia is determined both as the goal of the Russian project of civilizational development and as the space it can be realized within. At the same time, the space for the development of Russia-Eurasia is described as the natural environment of the Russian civilizational project, the space of the “primary circle”. Special role is played by the creation and development of the Eurasian Economic Union, which unites the countries that have faced the escalation of nationalist sentiment after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; 2) The “Greater Eurasia” is designated as the “secondary circle” of the Russian civilizational project, a space for continental cooperation, determines by new political reality.  3) Certain zones of civilizational confrontation and contradictions on the continent have been identified. The author believes that the need for conceptualization of the concept at hand lies in the significant sociopolitical formative potential.

Constructivist approach and relevant alternatives within the modern theory of ideology: problems and solutions

The subject of this research is the history of the development of the concept of “ideology” in the European sociopolitical theory. Emphasis is placed on constructivism as the general concept that incorporates a range of methodological approaches towards tracing the evolution of the phenomenon of ideology in the XX –XXI centuries. The study of the latest methodologies is part of the project of returning the concept of ideology to the modern sociopolitical discourse, which complies with the current standards of political knowledge. The used methodological approaches employ cultural-historical, comparative, critical-analytical and narrative methods. Special attention is given to narrative approach as an object of study and method used in the course of research. The conclusion is made on the dependence of certain aspects of the concept of ideology depend on the cultural-historical circumstances of its origin (i.e. the specificity of the Western European civilizational context). Substantiation is given to the special role of the principle of individualism as a fundamental characteristic, which distinguishes between the Western European ideology and its Russian alternative. The author determines the theoretical source that has the capacity for the development of relevant (corresponding to the theoretical inquiry of the XXI century) Russian project of ideology. The aforementioned statements define the scientific contribution and novelty of this work.

Protolanguage in the context of historical consciousness

This article examines the capabilities of protolanguage as the object of philosophy. The subject of this research is the protolanguage viewed from different perspectives: as the ideal construct, as retrotopic plot, as key to the golden age, etc. Within the framework of the philosophy of language, protolanguage largely correlates with the Adamic language, which can be considered as disappeared or subtly preserved in national languages. The search for protolanguage in the Middle Ages (and later period) requires the method of philosophical etymology that proves the closeness of the selected language to the historical primary source - the point of the origin of history. The context of protolanguage intersects not only with linguo-philosophical problematic, but also with the problem of historical consciousness. Protolanguage can be perceived as a type of internal language, or inner form of language; therefore the theme of internal form becomes the plotline for searching the language that encompasses antiquity as the criterion of truth and the ideal comprehension, when the disappearing language remains in silence, indicating the very things. The article advances an idea that the genealogical classification of languages, which includes one protolanguage underlying the linguistic family, may have such classification, which is founded not only on the comparative-historical method, but also the peculiarities of historical consciousness suggesting, for example, that for philhellene culture such protolanguage would be considered the Greek language. The question of protolanguage is attributed to not only the sphere of comparative-historical linguistics, but virtually being the question of the origin of history and human, lies in the realm of the philosophy of history, ontology, and gnoseology.

Hypothesis on the informative principles of voluntary and involuntary attention: on the theory of non-systems and causal environments in causal dualism

The subject of this research is certain informative principles of functionality of human nervous system. In the limelight is the interdependence of consciousness and information, as well as the question in the spirit of anti-physicalist arguments: whether the conscious processes are informative, and thus physical, or require a categorical apparatus for description? The first part of the article discusses possible wording of some informative principles of functionality of nervous system that answer the question “why” rather than “how”. The second part is dedicated to the general classification of causal environments, as well as description of conscious processes within the framework of new possible terminology. A number of hypotheses is advanced on the informative mechanisms of involuntary and voluntary attention. With regards to involuntary attention, the author examines the mechanism for resource conservation, or filtering information, which suggests that the nervous system tends to consume resources for processing the rarer – and more information capacious messages. Such position complies with the law of conservation of energy. Voluntary attention is viewed on the basis of information interpretation of the Le Chatelier’s principle. Voluntary attention, resulting conscious actions, and responses of the nervous system (including creativity) are considered as informational messages aimed at alleviation of the impact of external environment, namely the level of information uncertainty. Such information approach prompts to view consciousness as a non-system or causal environment, within which causality is transmitted without transmitting information. The article provides the variant of classification of causal environments that may contribute to further development of non-informative (non-physicalist) approach towards the problem of consciousness.

Local-civilizational research and social constructivism: points of intersection

This article represents a polemical response to the critical of poly-civilizational research article by D. E. Letnyakov, who offers to shift away from the essentialist attitudes in the context of studying the phenomenon of civilization, and rather focus on the mechanisms of formation of civilizational identity. In contradiction of the aforementioned point of view, the author of this article argues the inferiority and one-sidedness of the attempts to limit the multi-paradigm vector of research to a single methodological approach, substantiates the philosophical grounds of such multi-paradigmality, and on the example of gender studies, indicates the discrepancies that emerge due to neglecting the essential approach by the researchers. The subject of this article is the methodology of civilizational research. The author does not intent to refute the provisions of social constructivism completely, since its adherents made a considerable contribution to social knowledge, but rather demonstrate that in a number of multi-paradigm vectors (to which civilizational research belong to), this methodological approach cannot be limited to just one. It is substantiated that for philosophy, the criticism of civilizational theory from the perspective of social constructivism, is the phenomenon similar to refutation of Lobachevsky’s geometry from the standpoint of Euclidean geometry, or the laws of quantum mechanics based on the Newton laws. These are different worlds, different set of coordinates, with fundamentally different laws effective therein.