試論《東周列國志》對周桓王之形塑及評騭

<p>孔子主張「禮樂征伐自天子出」，但周桓王因與鄭莊公交惡，不滿周王室二任天子面對鄭莊公總是處於劣勢。桓王即位後先是與鄭國交惡情況已無力迴轉。周桓王聯軍攻鄭，卻敗於繻葛，桓王本人更於此役受射箭中傷。鄭卻壓倒性的戰勝周室的聯軍，導致周天子顏面盡失，王朝秩序亦蕩然無存，「尊王」的時代一去不復返。「禮」是周朝立國之基礎，凡事都堅持按禮樂制度辦事，為西周之周公所制定，但在很多地方，均已過時了。眾多諸侯也一一不再遵循，周桓王時期雖仍能影響虢國，但已無力阻止王室轉衰，亦無力阻止諸侯間的互相攻伐。《東周列國志》採用「歷史演義」手法，依序道出周桓王之委屈與還擊，卻也將周桓王思維不夠縝密、不擅用人等埋伏在隱線裡。</p> <p>&nbsp;</p><p>Confucius advocated that &quot;the courtesy and conquest came from the emperor.&quot; However, due to the disagreement between the king and the emperor Zheng Zhuang, the second emperor of the royal family was always at a disadvantage when facing the emperor Zheng Zhuang. Zhou Zhen Wang Lianjun attacked Zheng, but lost to Yu Ge. Zheng’s overwhelming victory over Zhou’s coalition forces led to the loss of Zhou Tianzi’s face and the disappearance of the international order. The era of &quot;respecting the king&quot; is gone forever. Many princes no longer followed one by one, and King Zhou Xuan had no power to prevent the royal family from turning down, nor could they prevent each other from attacking each other. &quot;Eastern Zhou Dynasty Records&quot; adopts the &quot;historical romance&quot; method, which in turn reveals the grievances and counterattacks of Zhou Zhenwang, but also ambushes Zhou Zhou’s inadequate thinking and is not good at using people.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p>

How can Archaeological Scientist Integrate the Typological and Stylistic Characteristics with Scientific Results: A Case Study on Bronze Spearheads Unearthed from the Shuangyuan Village, Chengdu City, Southwest China

Background: Bronze spears are weapons with unique regional characteristics of the Shu culture, Southwest China in the Bronze Age, which reflect the bronze manufacturing tradition and the utilization of mineral resources of ancestors. Previous studies mainly focused on the classification, the alloy composition or the production of bronze spearheads of the Shu culture. The purpose of this paper was to make a comprehensive discussion on the Shu culture from the aspects of the relationship between typology and scientific characteristics, the differences in metal raw material selection with the Ba culture, and the contact with the culture in the Central Plains. Results : Methods: In this study, typology, portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF) and multi collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS) were used to analyze thirteen bronze spearheads unearthed from Shuangyuan site, an Eastern Zhou cemetery in Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, Southwest China. Methods: The results show that the spearheads can be classified into three types in typology. All samples are tin-lead ternary bronzes, and the lead isotope data indicate the lead ore. Most spearheads show ordinary lead and only one spearhead has highly radiogenic lead. Conclusion: The typical Shu-style bronze spearheads have distinct shapes but similar ore materials. Meanwhile, people of the Ba culture and the Shu culture used different metal sources to make bronze spearheads. In addition, a very special bronze spearhead suggests that ancestors of the Shu culture in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty imitated the late Shang culture in the Central Plains.

Preliminary Discussion on the Highly Radiogenic Lead in Unalloyed Copper Artifacts of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty: Starting from the Huili Copper Spearheads

The debate about the highly radiogenic lead in Chinese archaeology has never ceased. However, previous studies have mainly focused on high leaded bronzes and lead materials, and with little specific discussion on the unalloyed copper artifacts and the sources of copper materials in China. In this work, a trace of highly radiogenic lead was found in ten copper spearheads unearthed from Huili County, Sichuan Province, southwest China, which inspired our research on this issue. The pXRF results showed that their lead content is extremely low, so the lead isotope ratios can indicate the source of copper, and the data correspond to the local copper deposits. Combined with other relevant highly radiogenic lead isotope data of unalloyed copper artifacts, the results indicate that there were multiple sources of copper ores used in the Shang Dynasty, and copper mines were continuously used in Southwest China until the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.

Health Status and Burial Status in Early China

This chapter quantifies and compares mortuary pattern grammars and skeletal health markers between the sites of Xipo (Yangshao culture, a Middle Neolithic chiefdom ca. 4000–3000 B.C.) and Xiyasi (a site participating in the state-level, stratified Eastern Zhou dynasty ca. 770–221 B.C.). At Xipo, health patterns display no statistically significant differences across the three archaeologically defined social strata, even when taking into consideration sex-based burial variation. In contrast, the Xiyasi sample from Bronze Age Zhou displays a mortuary program based on social status, age, and sex, dividing the population into four ranked groups. Elite burials (mostly men) evidently possessed worse oral health, likely owing to differential consumption of status-linked foods. Pechenkina and colleagues encounter yet stronger associations between sex and specific funerary contexts especially in the Eastern Zhou. Increasing social complexity appears to have been most directly associated with changes in sex (and by inference, gender)-associated social roles.

Shifting diets and the rise of male-biased inequality on the Central Plains of China during Eastern Zhou

Farming domesticated millets, tending pigs, and hunting constituted the core of human subsistence strategies during Neolithic Yangshao (5000–2900 BC). Introduction of wheat and barley as well as the addition of domesticated herbivores during the Late Neolithic (∼2600–1900 BC) led to restructuring of ancient Chinese subsistence strategies. This study documents a dietary shift from indigenous millets to the newly introduced cereals in northcentral China during the Bronze Age Eastern Zhou Dynasty (771–221 BC) based on stable isotope analysis of human and animal bone samples. Our results show that this change affected females to a greater degree than males. We find that consumption of the newly introduced cereals was associated with less consumption of animal products and a higher rate of skeletal stress markers among females. We hypothesized that the observed separation of dietary signatures between males and females marks the rise of male-biased inequality in early China. We test this hypothesis by comparing Eastern Zhou human skeletal data with those from Neolithic Yangshao archaeological contexts. We find no evidence of male–female inequality in early farming communities. The presence of male-biased inequality in Eastern Zhou society is supported by increased body height difference between the sexes as well as the greater wealth of male burials.