„KRYZYS MONARCHI PIASTOWSKIEJ” I PROBLEM TZW. REAKCJI POGAŃSKIEJ OKIEM ARCHEOLOGA

The turmoil of the 1030s in the Polish territory has so far attracted attention of historians. A detailed analysis of the information available in the written sources has strengthened a position in the result of which (in line with the reference to the events in question) the pagan backlash was to stem primarily from religious reasons. This interpretations suggests and provokes reception of Mieszko II’s domain as a completely Christian organisation. Consequently, at least officially it suggests that the pagan communities had been pushed to the margins of the society. Scholars have no doubts that these communities existed because they are regarded to have affected the events of the 1030s. Was it really the case? An analysis of archaeological sources, previously not used in the discussion of the pagan backlash, does not answer the questions so unambiguously. There is a strong indication that the followers of the old values did not have to flee from persecutions or the missionary ideology. It also looks like they did not have to fear financial exploitation for the benefit of the established church structures which could have easily operated parallel to venues referring to the traditional religious symbols. If we assume that it was the case, were the events of the 1030s in fact a pagan backlash? This question was at the basis of the considerations presented in this text.

An exploration into Historical and Political factors for the deviation of the Early Church from Scriptural Principles of Government in Reformed Church perspective

The question of church government deals with order and authority of the church. The basic principles for sound church polity base on the Scriptural conviction of the Sovereignty of God and Christ as Head and Ruler of the church. The church moved away from this Scriptural principle due to historical and political factors beyond her authority. The study holds that nowhere in the Scriptures do we find an exclusive picture related to any of the fully developed systems of church government today. The New Testament Scriptures suggest a flexible evolving format of plurality of elders in church polity. The aim of the study is to investigate how some ideas and concepts of church government evolved and developed in the history of the church, how historical and political factors forced the church to shift away from principles of Scripture to advocate for a prelacy theory of government practiced over the centuries. In reformed traditional view, the characteristics of hierarchicalism and clericalism in church structures are not accepted. There is no such a thing as highly hierarchical and clerical or ecclesiastical power in the church of Jesus Christ.

Revisiting the Problem of the Relationship between the Renovationist and “Gregorian” Church Structures in Eastern Siberia in 1926–1934

The article analyzes the relationship between the renovationist and «Gregorian» church structures in Eastern Siberia in 1926-1934. The article examines the position of the central and local structures of the Provisional supreme church council in relation to renovationism, as well as the view of the renovationist Holy Synod on the «gregorian» schism in the Russian Orthodox Church. The article analyzes the information about the structures of the PSCC in the materials of the renovationist dioceses in Eastern Siberia, and also examines switching of the clergy and communities from the renovationism to the “gregorian” schism and vice versa in Eastern Siberia. The author came to the conclusion that in Eastern Siberia the “gregorian” schism did not pose a significant threat to renovationism, therefore, contacts were restricted to acceptance of the clergy and communities, as well as pronouncement of the status of the PSCC structures and the departure of communities and clerics to them.

“Kulturkampf” as the confrontation of the catholic church and the imperial government of Germany in the 70s of the XIX century

The article is devoted to the analysis of the origins and content of the kulturkampf policy initiated by the German Reich Chancellor in the 1870s. The Struggle for Culture played a decisive role not only in the formation of the Center party as one of the most influential political parties of the Reichstag in the second half of the 19th century, but also in the history of Germany as a whole. The political orientation of the first German Reich Chancellor towards the strong secular state controlling and limiting church structures was initially in favor of the empire united in 1871 and in line with the trends of the times. But the Reich Chancellors harsh, restrictive laws led to police arbitrariness and infringement on the Catholic population of the German Empire. The author identifies the main reasons that led to the persecution and repression of the Catholic minority of the German Empire. The problems of the unification of the German Empire, particularism, federalism, ultramontanism and confessional conflicts are considered in close connection with the topic under study. The research is based on the works of Russian and German researchers and on the legislative acts of Prussia and the German Empire. In addition, the materials of parliamentary debates presented in the verbatim records of the Reichstag and extracts from the memoirs of contemporaries of the event were used.

Contemporary Models of Marian Discourse in Slovakia

According to the 2001 census, the majority of Slovakia's population statistically follows the Catholic confession of Roman or Byzantine rites. In both rites, the Marian devotion has a consider- able place in religious reflection and spirituality. This study explores the religious discourse of the Marian devotion as it appears in available books and booklets on this topic. The main focus of the chapter is a comparison of the Marian discourse in Slovakia (representing a post-socialist country) and the Marian discourse in neighbouring Austria (representing a ‘Western’ country with no socialist history). For this purpose, a sample of Mariological reflections and spiritual texts was created based on their availability in all Catholic bookstores in the capital of Slovakia (Bratislava) and the capital of Austria (Vienna). The reason for this choice is that these bookstores offer books that mirror the living intellectual and religious brainstorming and reflect Christianity, in par-ticularly the pattern of the Marian discourse of the recent decades in both countries. The study comments on the absence of modern Marian literature in Slovak bookstores. The author also analyses the Marian vocabulary and topics in the both samples. The author distinguishes three existing models of the Marian discourse in Slovakia, all of traditional origin, portraying Mary as an unselfish and patient mother, Mary loving conditionally and restraining God's anger; Mary leading the legions against Satan and crushing his head. All three models are based on the traditional images of Mary and, within the Christian communities, are not understood as contradictory, but complementary. Compared to Western Christianity, the Marian discourse in Slovakia lacks two recurrent models: (1) the progressive 20th/21st century model, and (2) the traditionalist and fundamentalist mod- el. The first model has created a Marian vocabulary and contents representing a self-confident, social and communicative model of Mary. This model presents an alternative to the old models combining mild or triumphant vocabulary with mild or triumphant contents. The second model which is absent among Slovak believers is the Marian discourse of the traditionalist and fundamentalist groups of each age tolerated by official Church structures. These traditionalist and fundamentalist groups return to the old Marian vocabulary and contents that is triumphant, militant and – in this modern version – has an offensive character. This form of discourse, created as a reaction to progressive Christian groups – did not emerge in Slovakia, since there were no progressive Christian movements. Based on the research of the author, the Slovak Marian re- flection and spirituality result from traditional beliefs, having no affinity to Western progressive and traditionalist models. In this regard, it can be stated that Slovakia's isolation from the European spiritual development, which has caused traditional devotion to be fixed in its forms, is, paradoxically, continuing also after the fall of Communism in the era of religious freedom. The comparative discoursive analysis of Mariological literature in Slovakia and its Western neighbour – Austria has showed that the Slovak religious landscape is far more traditional (but not traditionalist) than the current trends in the ‘Western’ religious discourse.

Hierarchical systems and their evolution in Buddhist communities of Central Asia

This article examines the hierarchical systems established in Buddhist communities of Central Asia.  Hierarchies are viewed in the spiritual context: by level of taking of vows, educational attainment, level of practical implementation of knowledge, rank in the institution of “Reincarnated Lamas”; as well as hierarchies important in administrative context, such as levels of responsibility, governance of monasteries, rank within the structure of state administration, and interaction with government institutions. It is noted that genetically all of them ascend to Teacher – student hierarchy. This work explores the evolution of these hierarchies under the changing historical conditions, as well their complex interrelations. It is demonstrated that hierarchical system evolved depending on such factors, as the development of monastic education, increased role in the communities of “Reincarnated Lamas”, shift in the role of monasteries within state administration along with the role of government in regulation of the religious institutions. It is determined that hierarchies partially intersected, but also diverged due to the possibility of relatively autonomous practice of Sutra and Tantra, which formed different types of communities –  sangha and ganachakra respectively. In Russia, Buddhist communities were integrated into the system of state-religious relations, which required centralization of religious community resulting in the fact that the administrative church structures took the central stage. Liberalization of state control of the religious activity in post-Soviet Russia led to the emergence of multiple secular Buddhist associations that practiced Mahayanist and tantric methods structured as ganachakra. The central place was held by the structure of religious hierarchy along with “Teacher – student” relations. The conclusion is made that such structural differentiation of Buddhist communities is the results of the natural course of self-determination of various traditions in the conditions of freedom of religion.

Protestants, Gender and the Arab Renaissance in Late Ottoman Syria by Deanna Ferree Womack

To scholars of the Nahda, that is, the Arab cultural renaissance which unfolded in Egypt and Ottoman Syria over the course of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the journalist, teacher, and writer Buṭrus al-Bustānī is well familiar. However, few might be aware that al-Bustānī was also a committed Protestant Christian involved in building local church structures. Probably even fewer know that his daughter, Alice al-Bustānī, and other members of his extended family were at once important figures within the Syrian Protestant church and central protagonists of the Nahda. To read the full book review, download the PDF file on the right.

Biskupi i mnisi w Kościele Wschodu pod panowaniem Sasanidów = Bishops and monks in the Church of the East in the Sassanian period

This paper studies the relationship between Church hierarchy and monastic groups in the Syriac Church of the East in late antiquity (during the period of the Sassanian rule). Previous scholarship on this subject assumed the existence of a ‘natural’ conflict between the bishops and the monks in the East Syriac world of late antiquity. In this respect, it followed the early medieval eastern Syriac sources, which were created by monks themselves – and in all probability, these authors significantly rewrote the earlier history of their own Church. In this study, instead of relying on later sources, I propose to focus on the evidence that actually survives from late antiquity, that is the normative sources. These are collections of canons produced by the synods of the Church of the East that took place between ad 410 and ad 605. A detailed analysis of these sources leads to the conclusion that the relationship between the bishops and the monks in this particular Church was not characterized by a permanent, ‘natural’ conflict. Rather, subsequent policies that the bishops pursued vis-à-vis the monks were part of larger projects of church reform, that occurred almost one generation after another. These reforms had to do with the dynamic growth of the Church of the East, its integration into the Sassanian society, but also with the increasing challenge posed by the eastward expansion of the Monophysite West-Syriac Church structures and monastic communities, which in many places in Iraq and Iran seemed to threaten the very existence of the Church of the East.

Hierarchical systems and their evolution in Buddhist communities of Central Asia

This article examines the hierarchical systems established in Buddhist communities of Central Asia.  Hierarchies are viewed in the spiritual context: by level of taking of vows, educational attainment, level of practical implementation of knowledge, rank in the institution of “Reincarnated Lamas”; as well as hierarchies important in administrative context, such as levels of responsibility, governance of monasteries, rank within the structure of state administration, and interaction with government institutions. It is noted that genetically all of them ascend to Teacher – student hierarchy. This work explores the evolution of these hierarchies under the changing historical conditions, as well their complex interrelations. It is demonstrated that hierarchical system evolved depending on such factors, as the development of monastic education, increased role in the communities of “Reincarnated Lamas”, shift in the role of monasteries within state administration along with the role of government in regulation of the religious institutions. It is determined that hierarchies partially intersected, but also diverged due to the possibility of relatively autonomous practice of Sutra and Tantra, which formed different types of communities –  sangha and ganachakra respectively. In Russia, Buddhist communities were integrated into the system of state-religious relations, which required centralization of religious community resulting in the fact that the administrative church structures took the central stage. Liberalization of state control of the religious activity in post-Soviet Russia led to the emergence of multiple secular Buddhist associations that practiced Mahayanist and tantric methods structured as ganachakra. The central place was held by the structure of religious hierarchy along with “Teacher – student” relations. The conclusion is made that such structural differentiation of Buddhist communities is the results of the natural course of self-determination of various traditions in the conditions of freedom of religion.