Eschatology and Religiosity of the People in Russia in the 17th Century

The article studies the religiosity of Russian population in the 17th century in order to find out the type of this state of public mind. Special attention is drawn to the acuteness of eschatological expectations in society, which intensified during periods of crises. After the Time of Troubles (Smuta), the Church, trying to bring society out of the spiritual crisis, had been exploiting the “end of the world” topic through publishing relevant texts. This trend was especially noticeable during the time of Patriarch Joseph. The decision of the Moscow Printing House (Pechatnyi Dvor) to extend the amount of eschatological publications was determined not only by the direction of church policy, but also by the request in society, the desire of the population to get a more complete picture of the Christian teaching about the ultimate destinies of the world and man, since the spiritual crisis had presupposed an increase of apocalyptic moods. This desire indicates that the population was characterized by the religiosity of the medieval type. The article scrutinizes in particular the 2nd half of the 17th century, which modern researchers rightly designate as the early Modern era. In a society with such a keen perception of the time, the church reform, initiated in the middle of the century by Patriarch Nikon, was naturally not supported by a part of the population. In the interpretation of the defenders of the Old Belief, the actions of the reformers turned into clear signs of the advent of the kingdom of Antichrist, as it was prophesied in Christian teaching. It was not some peculiarity of the worldview of the opponents of church reform, their behavior adjusted the religiosity of the epoch. To justify these thoughts the position of Patriarch Nikon could be mentioned. Nikon found himself in a situation of disapproval and, arguing to be wrongfully convicted and misunderstood, he also used the eschatological doctrine. Based on the analysis of such facts, the article concludes that the 2nd half of the 17th century was characterized by religiosity of the medieval type.

Remembering St Brictius: Conspiracy, Violence and Liturgical Time in the Danish Massacre of 1002

This article builds upon recent scholarship on the role of church ‘reform’ and the cult of saints in English royal politics around the turn of the second millennium, arguing that the infamous ‘St Brice's Day massacre’ of 13 November 1002 may have been planned for that date in part because of the associations of the cult of Brice/Brictius. After outlining this hypothesis, the article explores the broader implications of the emergence of a universal martyrological calendar for historical writing and political action, and for the exercise and communication of violence in particular.

Group Portraits of Cardinal Bembo and his Friends in the Wake of Trent

Despite being primarily famous as a poet and literary theorist, Pietro Bembo’s visual legacy is dominated by images of him as an aged cardinal. The majority of these images of Cardinal Bembo were produced posthumously, and several representations occur in group portraits including cardinals affiliated with Paul III’s programme of ecclesiastical reform; many of these individuals were Bembo’s closest friends at the papal court. Exploring the important place that Bembo assumed within the Roman Curia during his cardinalate, and his association with the group known as the spirituali, this essay will consider how cardinal portraiture could be used to articulate visually a particular agenda of church reform.

«Reform, reformation and replenishment of the Church»: Historical and analytical review of A.V. Kartashev's treatise

Предмет исследования – сочинение А.В. Карташева «Реформа, реформация и исполнение Церкви», его речь 1916 г. в Петербургском религиозно-философском обществе о «внешнем» и «внутреннем» развитии Русской Церкви в преддверии Февральской революции. ПРФО было попыткой вернуться к Петербургским религиозно-фило-софским собраниям (1901–1903), на которых религиозная интеллигенция выдвинула Церкви предложения по церковной реформе и начала религиозное движение. Его задачей была пропаганда нового религиозного сознания (НРС), воцерковление культуры как фактора обожения человека. Церковь призвали изменить отношение к «пло-ти» и слиться с общественной жизнью религиозно. Считается, что трактат направлен против церковной реформации. Реконструкция его содержания в доктринальной системе НРС показывает, что Карташев в 1916 г. верен своим взглядам начала века. The subject of the research is the work of A.V. Kartashev «Reform, reformation and replenishment of the Church». This is Kartashev's speech at the St. Petersburg religious and philosophical society (1907–1917) about the «external» and «internal» development of the Russian Church on the eve of The February bourgeois-democratic revolution. PRFO was an attempt to return to the St. Petersburg religious and philosophical meetings (1901–1903), at which the religious intelligentsia in the context of the historical modernization of the country put forward proposals for Church reform to the Church and started a religious movement. Its task was to promote a new religious consciousness (NRC), and to establish culture as a factor of human deification. The Church was called to change its attitude to the «flesh» and merge with public life religiously. It is believed that in the treatise Kartashev opposed the Church reformation in Russia. Reconstruction of the content of the treatise in the doctrinal system of the NRC shows that Kartashev in 1916 was true to his views of the beginning of the century.

Hagiography as Political Documentation : The Case of Betha Beraigh (The Life of St Berach)

The focus of the article is on the historical stimuli which might have prompted the compilation of the Irish Life of St Berach, Betha Beraigh, and on the textual structure and motifs employed by the hagiographer to achieve his goals, i.e. to extol his patron saint and to claim territories for his church. Although the twelfth century was characterized by Church reform, Betha Beraigh seems to show little interest in contemporary religious discourse. Instead, the main purpose of the text seems to be concern with property, as well as desire to forge or revive connections with secular dynasties. The Life, therefore, represents a property record and accordingly, should be read against a political background as a document similar in its intent to continental charters.

Spór o powołanie Kościoła narodowego w Koronie w okresie soboru trydenckiego (1545-1563)

Debate on the Creating of the Polish National Church in the Times of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) In the time of the Council of Trent, the Polish nobility often and loudly demanded the forming of the Polish National Church, which would enable them to execute state control over the clergy, its activity, and church property. Popular Protestant ideas coherent with such an idea fulfilled the role of useful weapon in their struggle against the clergy. Even though the idea of the church reform converged with many changes postulated by the contemporary noble reform movement, the state finances, homogeneity of Crown lands and the Polish-Lithuanian union took predominance over church matters. Appropriate conduct of debate, disabling discussion about a reform, was promoted by the clergy itself, which was not interested in loosening their dominant position in the society and becoming subject to civic laws. Protestant deputies to the parliament, who constituted the majority in the lower chamber, could have acquired more benefits, were it not for their reluctance to impose certain solutions on the Catholics, who still dominated in the society. The clergy, in particular bishops, sought some compromise with Protestants, until the Catholic Church itself undertook mild reforms in the third phase of the Council of Trent. The stand of the Polish monarch, Sigismundus Augustus, who – having been raised as a Catholic – opposed the forming of new church and his attitude was also important.

Rosaries and Statues: Mediating Divine Intervention in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea

In the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (ARoB) in Papua New Guinea, the changes of Vatican II led to significant Church reform, creating “Liklik Kristen Komuniti” (small Christian communities) that gave more responsibility to the laity. Moreover, as elsewhere in the world, Charismatic Catholicism was introduced and embraced. At the same time, private devotions, and in particular devotions to Mary, became immensely popular and powerful in Bougainville. This is partly due to the Bougainville crisis (1988–1998), which caused immense suffering, but also triggered a surge in popular devotions as people looked for spiritual guidance to deal with the hardships of the crisis. This paper shows how in the context of social and economic upheaval, charismatic popular devotions became increasingly influential with rosaries and statues becoming important mediums in facilitating healing and socio-political renewal. This shows the strength of popular devotions and the importance of material religion in particular. It also elucidates how popular devotions in Bougainville are part of global Catholic developments, as well as transnational practices that place Mary in the center of devotional practices.

Johannes Bugenhagen

Johannes Bugenhagen’s church orders revealed the lasting imprint of religious values on the poverty policies of many German cities. Originally from Pomerania (the coastal region of present-day Poland and Germany), Bugenhagen crafted legislation that included practical measures for poor relief. As a Wittenberg pastor, professor, and organizer of church reform, Bugenhagen became the diplomat for translating Lutheran ideals into practical laws that would reorganize or create new institutions of poor relief in north German cities, as well as in Scandinavia. In his negotiations with city councils and political rulers, he highlighted an emerging need to support poor pastors who, as married clergy, now had families to support. His experience of creating laws for diverse circumstances led him to delineate flexible policies with an adaptable understanding of the deserving poor.

Wesley, Sacheverell, and Convocation

Chapter 6 explains the role that Wesley played in the events in Church and State between 1709 and 1714, the high point of Tory High Church ambition in Church and State. It suggests that Wesley probably did contribute to the defence of Henry Sacheverell, who was on trial in the House of Lords on the political charge of preaching a seditious sermon. Sacheverell and Wesley have so much in common that Wesley’s claim that he contributed to the defence seems entirely plausible. As a member of Convocation, between 1710 and 1713, Wesley emerged as an important figure in the period. In addition to much committee work and supporting the High Church Tory agenda, he also drafted a key report in 1713 which advanced the High Church clergy’s case against the Bishops and argued that the failure to pursue Church reform was the responsibility of the Latitudinarian Bishops. Also considered is Wesley’s response to the Peace of Utrecht, a major Tory victory against continuing a Whig war.

The Issue of the Split (Schism) in the Vremya and Epokha Journals (1861–1865)

The article is devoted to the issue of the schism in the Vremya and Epokha journals published by the brothers Fyodor and Mikhail Dostoevskys. The content of the articles and reviews published in them is considered from the viewpoint of pochvennichestvo (native soil) position of the publications. The stance of their editorial board is formulated in the Announcement about the publication of the Vremya journal in 1861, which became a program document. The main concept of Vremya, as well as the Epokha journal that followed it, was the need to merge the educated part of society with the people. There was a spiritual, political and social gap, a split between them, which was caused not only by the church reform of the 17th-century, but also by subsequent state reforms that caused people’s rejection. The idea of the Dostoevskys' journals was to get to know the people, recognize their originality, appeal to the native principle, pochva (soil), the communal form of life, the synthesis of the ideas developed in Europe, which will find their development in the Russian narodnost’ (Russian people). These thoughts were absorbed by F. M. Dostoevsky’s idea of enhanced knowledge of Russia, which was reflected in his article “Two Camps of Theorists.” Using the publications in the Vremya and Epokha journals, it is demonstrated that the concept of split (schism) in the minds of the 19th-century authors was much broader than the historical phenomenon caused by the 17th-century church reform. They consider the split not only as a religious, but also as a social and political phenomenon that requires deep research and rectification, a synthesis of European and popular principles.