Modality Effects in Free Recall: A Retrieved-Context Account

The modality effect refers to the robust finding that memory performance differs for items presented aurally, as compared with visually. Whereas auditory presentation leads to stronger recency performance in immediate recall, visual presentation often produces better primacy performance (the inverse modality effect). To investigate and model these differences, we conducted two large-scale web-based immediate free recall experiments. In both experiments, participants studied visual and auditory word lists of varying lengths and rates of presentation. We observed typical modality and inverse modality effects, while also discovering that participants were more likely to initiate recall from recent items on auditory trials than on visual trials. However, modality effects persisted regardless of the first item recalled. Meanwhile, an analysis of intrusion errors revealed that participants were more likely on visual trials than on auditory trials to erroneously recall words from one list prior. Furthermore, words presented in the same modality as the present list intruded more often than those presented in a different modality. We next developed a retrieved-context account of the modality effect by fitting the Context Maintenance and Retrieval model to data across multiple list lengths. Through our simulations, we demonstrate that the modality effect can be explained by faster contextual drift and stronger context-to-item association formation during auditory presentation, relative to visual. Our modeling shows that modality effects can arise without hypothesizing distinct memory stores for recent and remote information. Finally, we propose that modality effects may derive primarily from the temporal dynamics of stimuli, rather than their modality.

Task modality and language-related episodes in young learners: An attempt to manage accuracy and editing

Task modality (oral vs. writing) has been found to affect the production, nature and resolution of the language-related episodes (LREs) produced by adult learners in collaborative interaction, a finding also attested in very recent and still limited research with young learners, a population that deserves greater attention in the literature. Besides, previous research has not yet considered the incorporation of LREs in the final output of both oral and written tasks. Nor has it controlled for the differential levels of accuracy that the oral vs. the written modality demand, or the opportunity for revising the output equally in both modalities. Besides, little is known about learners’ motivation towards tasks of different modality. This article fills these gaps by examining the effect of task-modality on the production of LREs by 10- to 12-year-old schoolchildren performing an oral+writing task and an oral+editing task, as well as its effect on their task motivation. Task modality effects were evinced in terms of nature and incorporation of LREs, the written mode leading to greater focus on form and incorporation of accurately resolved LREs. The possibility of editing the oral output resulted in enhanced target-likeness of resolved LREs. As for task motivation, learners perceived both tasks as equally motivating.

Argument Structure in Sign Languages

Although sign languages are crucial for research on the human linguistic capacity, argument structure in these languages is rarely addressed in theoretical and typological studies. This article provides an overview of existing research on argument structure and argument structure alternations in sign languages. It demonstrates that there are many fundamental similarities between the two modalities in the domain of argument structure, such as the basic valency patterns and the semantic basis of argument structure. At the same time, modality effects, such as iconicity, simultaneity, and the use of space, play an important role in argument structure realization. Finally, the article discusses how emerging sign languages present an opportunity to observe and study the emergence of argument structure. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Linguistics, Volume 8 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

The More, the Better? Effects of Multiple Modalities on EFL Listening and Reading Comprehension

This study explores the effectiveness of multimedia modalities by comparing the effects of the use of different modality modes on EFL comprehension. The experiment was conducted during the 2020 academic year. The participants were 186 college EFL students who were selected from six intact classes at a university in Korea. They were divided into six groups at random and received the treatment depending on their experimental conditions: text-only (TO), audio-only (AO), text-picture (TP), audio-picture (AP), text-audio (TA), and text-audio-picture (TAP). For five weeks, all participants read, listened to, or both read and listened to the fairy tales with or without pictures in class. To test the modality effects, the TOEIC-based listening and reading pre- and post-tests were carried out. The whole data collected were analyzed with SPSS version 20 software. The study found that using different modalities in classes plays a beneficial role in increasing comprehension skills. TP, AP, and TA groups improved their listening skills while TO, TP, and TA groups increased their reading skills at a significance level of .05. Statistically significant group differences were also found based on experimental conditions in both listening and reading comprehension skills. Pedagogical implications and suggestions are discussed at the end.

Consequences of Sensory Modality for Perspective-Taking: Comparing Visual, Olfactory and Gustatory Perception

Perspective-taking is fundamental for language comprehension, including the interpretation of subjective adjectives (e.g., fun, tasty, and amazing). To understand these adjectives, one needs to know whose opinion is being conveyed—in other words, who is the attitude-holder or perspectival center. Although the perspective-sensitivity of subjective adjectives has received considerable attention in prior work in formal semantics, potential effects of sensory modality (e.g., sight, taste, and smell) on the process of attitude-holder identification have not been systematically investigated. This paper reports a series of studies testing whether interpretation of subjective adjectives depends on whether they refer to the visual, olfactory (smell) vs. gustatory (taste) domains. The results provide evidence that sensory modality has a significant impact on the process of identifying the attitude-holder. This outcome suggests that perspective-sensitivity is highly context-dependent, and the observed modality effects align well with the biological and social properties of sight, taste, and smell.

Language-related episodes by young CLIL learners

Task modality has been found to affect the production, nature and resolution of Language Related Episodes (LREs). However, a substantial number of investigations have been conducted with adult learners (i.e. García Mayo & Azkarai, 2016; Niu, 2009; Payant & Kim, 2019), except for García Mayo and Imaz Agirre (2019) with child learners. Besides, there is a lack of investigations examining the incorporation of LREs in the final output of oral and written tasks. In addition, previous studies have not controlled for either the different levels of accuracy that both task modalities demand as a consequence of their on-line and off-line nature or the opportunity for revising the output equally in both modalities. This paper compiles the findings from various studies conducted with the same cohorts of 5th and 6th primary school learners that have overcome the aforementioned methodological limitations, all of which will make possible a more comprehensive understanding of modality effects in terms of LRE production. In addition, it tackles the relationship between task-modality and variables such as the use of previously known languages, pair dynamics and pairing method (gender, proficiency and self-selection). Likewise, it adds to the scant research on young learners’ attitudes towards the tasks administered.

Handwriting versus keyboarding: Does writing modality affect quality of narratives written by beginning writers?

To date, there is no clear evidence to support choosing handwriting over keyboarding or vice versa as the modality children should use when they first learn to write. 102 Norwegian first-grade children from classrooms that used both electronic touchscreen keyboard on a digital tablet and pencil-and-paper for writing instruction wrote narratives in both modalities three months after starting school and were assessed on several literacy-related skills. The students’ texts were then analysed for a range of text features, and were rated holistically. Data were analysed using Bayesian methods. These permitted evaluation both of evidence in favour of a difference between modalities and of evidence in favour of there being no difference. We found moderate to strong evidence in favour of no difference between modalities. We also found moderate to strong evidence against modality effects being moderated by students’ literacy ability. Findings may be specific to students who are just starting to write, but suggest that for children at this stage of development writing performance is independent of modality.