Relevant Physiological Indicators for Assessing Workload in Conditionally Automated Driving, Through Three-Class Classification and Regression

In future conditionally automated driving, drivers may be asked to take over control of the car while it is driving autonomously. Performing a non-driving-related task could degrade their takeover performance, which could be detected by continuous assessment of drivers' mental load. In this regard, three physiological signals from 80 subjects were collected during 1 h of conditionally automated driving in a simulator. Participants were asked to perform a non-driving cognitive task (N-back) for 90 s, 15 times during driving. The modality and difficulty of the task were experimentally manipulated. The experiment yielded a dataset of drivers' physiological indicators during the task sequences, which was used to predict drivers' workload. This was done by classifying task difficulty (three classes) and regressing participants' reported level of subjective workload after each task (on a 0–20 scale). Classification of task modality was also studied. For each task, the effect of sensor fusion and task performance were studied. The implemented pipeline consisted of a repeated cross validation approach with grid search applied to three machine learning algorithms. The results showed that three different levels of mental load could be classified with a f1-score of 0.713 using the skin conductance and respiration signals as inputs of a random forest classifier. The best regression model predicted the subjective level of workload with a mean absolute error of 3.195 using the three signals. The accuracy of the model increased with participants' task performance. However, classification of task modality (visual or auditory) was not successful. Some physiological indicators such as estimates of respiratory sinus arrhythmia, respiratory amplitude, and temporal indices of heart rate variability were found to be relevant measures of mental workload. Their use should be preferred for ongoing assessment of driver workload in automated driving.

Evaluation of Imminent Take-Over Requests With Real Automation on a Test Track

Objective Investigating take-over, driving, non-driving related task (NDRT) performance, and trust of conditionally automated vehicles (AVs) in critical transitions on a test track. Background Most experimental results addressing driver take-over were obtained in simulators. The presented experiment aimed at validating relevant findings while uncovering potential effects of motion cues and real risk. Method Twenty-two participants responded to four critical transitions on a test track. Non-driving related task modality (reading on a handheld device vs. auditory) and take-over timing (cognitive load) were varied on two levels. We evaluated take-over and NDRT performance as well as gaze behavior. Further, trust and workload were assessed with scales and interviews. Results Reaction times were significantly faster than in simulator studies. Further, reaction times were only barely affected by varying visual, physical, or cognitive load. Post-take-over control was significantly degraded with the handheld device. Experiencing the system reduced participants’ distrust, and distrusting participants monitored the system longer and more frequently. NDRTs on a handheld device resulted in more safety-critical situations. Conclusion The results confirm that take-over performance is mainly influenced by visual-cognitive load, while physical load did not significantly affect responses. Future take-over request (TOR) studies may investigate situation awareness and post-take-over control rather than reaction times only. Trust and distrust can be considered as different dimensions in AV research. Application Conditionally AVs should offer dedicated interfaces for NDRTs to provide an alternative to using nomadic devices. These interfaces should be designed in a way to maintain drivers’ situation awareness. Précis This paper presents a test track experiment addressing conditionally automated driving systems. Twenty-two participants responded to critical TORs, where we varied NDRT modality and take-over timing. In addition, we assessed trust and workload with standardized scales and interviews.

Task modality and language-related episodes in young learners: An attempt to manage accuracy and editing

Task modality (oral vs. writing) has been found to affect the production, nature and resolution of the language-related episodes (LREs) produced by adult learners in collaborative interaction, a finding also attested in very recent and still limited research with young learners, a population that deserves greater attention in the literature. Besides, previous research has not yet considered the incorporation of LREs in the final output of both oral and written tasks. Nor has it controlled for the differential levels of accuracy that the oral vs. the written modality demand, or the opportunity for revising the output equally in both modalities. Besides, little is known about learners’ motivation towards tasks of different modality. This article fills these gaps by examining the effect of task-modality on the production of LREs by 10- to 12-year-old schoolchildren performing an oral+writing task and an oral+editing task, as well as its effect on their task motivation. Task modality effects were evinced in terms of nature and incorporation of LREs, the written mode leading to greater focus on form and incorporation of accurately resolved LREs. The possibility of editing the oral output resulted in enhanced target-likeness of resolved LREs. As for task motivation, learners perceived both tasks as equally motivating.

Language-related episodes by young CLIL learners

Task modality has been found to affect the production, nature and resolution of Language Related Episodes (LREs). However, a substantial number of investigations have been conducted with adult learners (i.e. García Mayo & Azkarai, 2016; Niu, 2009; Payant & Kim, 2019), except for García Mayo and Imaz Agirre (2019) with child learners. Besides, there is a lack of investigations examining the incorporation of LREs in the final output of oral and written tasks. In addition, previous studies have not controlled for either the different levels of accuracy that both task modalities demand as a consequence of their on-line and off-line nature or the opportunity for revising the output equally in both modalities. This paper compiles the findings from various studies conducted with the same cohorts of 5th and 6th primary school learners that have overcome the aforementioned methodological limitations, all of which will make possible a more comprehensive understanding of modality effects in terms of LRE production. In addition, it tackles the relationship between task-modality and variables such as the use of previously known languages, pair dynamics and pairing method (gender, proficiency and self-selection). Likewise, it adds to the scant research on young learners’ attitudes towards the tasks administered.

The Relationship between Intelligence and Divergent Thinking—A Meta-Analytic Update

This paper provides a meta-analytic update on the relationship between intelligence and divergent thinking (DT), as research on this topic has increased, and methods have diversified since Kim’s meta-analysis in 2005. A three-level meta-analysis was used to analyze 849 correlation coefficients from 112 studies with an overall N = 34,610. The overall effect showed a significant positive correlation of r = .25. This increase of the correlation as compared to Kim’s prior meta-analytic findings could be attributed to the correction of attenuation because a difference between effect sizes prior-Kim vs. post-Kim was non-significant. Different moderators such as scoring methods, instructional settings, intelligence facets, and task modality were tested together with theoretically relevant interactions between some of these factors. These moderation analyses showed that the intelligence–DT relationship can be higher (up to r = .31–.37) when employing test-like assessments coupled with be-creative instructions, and considering DT originality scores. The facet of intelligence (g vs. gf vs. gc) did not affect the correlation between intelligence and DT. Furthermore, we found two significant sample characteristics: (a) average sample age was positively associated with the intelligence–DT correlation, and (b) the intelligence–DT correlation decreased for samples with increasing percentages of females in the samples. Finally, inter-moderator correlations were checked to take potential confounding into account, and also publication bias was assessed. This meta-analysis provides a comprehensive picture of current research and possible research gaps. Theoretical implications, as well as recommendations for future research, are discussed.

Effect of Secondary Tasks on Police Officer Cognitive Workload and Performance Under Normal and Pursuit Driving Situations

Objective The objective of this study was to assess the effects of single and multiple secondary tasks on officers’ performance and cognitive workload under normal and pursuit driving conditions. Background Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of police line of duty injuries and deaths. These crashes are mainly attributed to the use of in-vehicle technologies and multi-tasking while driving. Method Eighteen police officers participated in a driving simulation experiment. The experiment followed a within-subject design and assessed the effect of single or multiple secondary tasks (via the mobile computer terminal (MCT) and radio) and driving condition (normal vs. pursuit driving) on officers’ driving performance, cognitive workload, and secondary task accuracy and reaction time. Results Findings suggested that police officers are protective of their driving performance when performing secondary tasks. However, their workload and driving performance degraded in pursuit conditions as compared to normal driving situations. Officers experienced higher workload when they were engaged with secondary tasks irrespective of the task modality or type. However, they were faster but less accurate in responding to the radio as compared to the MCT. Conclusion Police officers experience high mental workload in pursuit driving situations, which can reduce their driving performance and accuracy when they are engaged in some secondary tasks. Application The findings might be helpful for police agencies, trainers, and vehicle technology manufacturers to modify the existing policies, training protocols, and design of police in-vehicle technologies in order to improve police officer safety.

Birth Order and Divergent Thinking: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis examined the association of birth order on divergent thinking (DT). The main purpose was to reveal how ordinal position (only, first, middle, or last-born) relates to creativity. The results of 27 studies (k = 222) were analyzed using a multilevel approach. Since some previous studies compared first- vs. later-born children whereas others compared different ordinal positions in DT, three datasets were analyzed: (a) first-born vs. later-born children, (b) only children vs. children with siblings, and (c) middle-born vs. later-born children. Results showed that first-borns had higher DT scores than later-born children (g = -0.165, 95% CI [-0.012, -0.318], p = .046). Moderator analysis showed a significant interaction between gender and task modality with later-born males scoring lower on figural DT than first-born males. No significant difference was found between only children and first-born children with siblings. Moreover, the results showed a non-significant difference between middle- and later-born children; however, moderator analysis indicated that gender and age significantly explained some variability in the mean effect. Limitations and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

The interface between task-modality and the use of previously known languages in young CLIL English learners

This article contributes to the scarcity of research on the interface between task-modality and the use of previously known languages (PKL) in young learners. It examines the use of Basque/Spanish by CLIL learners (aged 10-11) during oral interaction while completing two collaborative tasks in English: a speaking task and a speaking + writing task. Findings indicate that these learners are extensive users of their PKL. Task-modality is particularly evident in the case of amount of PKL use, as a higher number of PKL turns are obtained in the speaking + writing task. However, task-modality has a limited effect on the functions of PKL, which contrasts with previous studies with adults. Despite the extensive use of their PKL, these young and low-proficient learners employ them as cognitive tools that facilitate the organization of the tasks, the co-construction of meaning and the attention to formal aspects of language such as mechanics.