Are sex offending allegations viewed differently? Exploring the effect of offense type and conviction status on criminal stigmatization

Attitudes toward individuals with sexual convictions play a major role in the formation of legislative action, including sentencing policies and registration and notification procedures. However, there is little research about stigmatization directed at those who are accused of such offenses prior to conviction. In this work we explored this gap by comparing stigmatization towards people accused of sexual offending in comparison to other offense categories, and whether this was further impacted by whether allegations led to a conviction. We recruited 403 community-based participants for a between-subjects experimental survey. We found support for the conclusion that people accused of and convicted for sexual offenses are more heavily stigmatized than allegations related to other crime types, and especially so when allegations involved child victims. Stigmatization took the form of greater levels of support for police-initiated notifications about allegations before conviction, increased desires for social distance, and attributions of negative personality traits. We discuss the theoretical and applied implications of these findings in relation to stigma research and issues related to anonymity for those accused of sexual offenses.

Imposition of Restitution

Chapter 4 describes seven multimethod studies that look at the imposition of restitution from the state, multi-county, and single-county perspectives and that examine both legally relevant factors (e.g., offense type, prior record) and demographic factors (race, age, gender) in judges’ decisions. Across studies, restitution was more likely to be imposed when damages could be easily estimated and proved (e.g., property crimes) and when the victim was a business. A statewide analysis of sentencing decisions indicated that a law mandating restitution significantly increased the imposition of restitution. A subsequent survey study of judges, prosecutors, and probation officers indicated general support for restitution, and an analysis of statewide county-level sentencing data indicated that contextual factors relating to crime victims were also related to the imposition of restitution. Comparisons of counties with and without specialized collection units suggested that specialized collections units were less effective at collecting economic sanctions.

The Offense-Specific Nature of Gender and Familial Responsibility in United States Federal Sentencing, 2010–2016

Prior sentencing research has identified leniency afforded to females (compared with males) and those with familial responsibility (compared with those without). Studies have also found that the effect of defendant gender, familial responsibility, and their intersections depend on the type of offense examined. What remains unclear is the situations in which these factors matter more or less. The purpose of this study is to disaggregate extralegal effects by understanding how gender, familial responsibility, and their intersections influence federal sentencing outcomes across various offense types. Findings from this study suggest that gender, familial responsibility, and their combinations exert different influences depending on the (a) dependent variable and (b) offense type examined.

Juvenile Court Outcomes for Retail Offenders: An Examination of Offense Type, Sex, and Race/Ethnicity

Using all delinquency referrals in a Northeast state, the current study examined how youth charged with retail offenses differed from other offense types across multiple juvenile court outcomes (i.e., petition, adjudication, and disposition). The individual and joint effects of a juvenile’s sex and race/ethnicity were also investigated to determine whether these extralegal factors conditioned the relationship between offense type and juvenile system processing. Findings indicate that at each decision-making stage, retail offenders were significantly more likely to be treated with leniency compared to other offense types. The results also reinforced the continued impact of sex and race/ethnicity on shaping judicial outcomes at each stage. Implications regarding the processing of juvenile retail offenders and the influence of juvenile characteristics on juvenile court decision-making are discussed.

Dating Aggression among Court-Involved Adolescents: Prevalence, Offense Type, and Gender

Adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system face a variety of risk factors that are associated with more frequent and severe experiences of aggression within romantic relationships as compared to community samples. The current study examines the nature and characteristics of adolescent dating violence (ADV) among first-time offense court-involved non-incarcerated (CINI) adolescents. A sample of 199 male and female CINI adolescents (58% male; M age = 15.05) who had a first-time, open status (e.g., truancy, curfew violation) and/or delinquent petition (e.g., assault, breaking, and entering). Overall, CINI adolescents reported prevalence rates of ADV consistent with community samples of adolescents. Females reported higher perpetration than did males in the sample of physical abuse and social networking abuse, as well as higher victimization of social networking abuse. Only one difference was found by offense type. CINI females report an increased risk for dating violence, though the cause of these gender differences is unclear. Findings also highlight that risk for ADV does not differ by offense type, suggesting that prevention efforts targeting ADV at the earliest possible intervention point, regardless of first-time offense type or severity, may be especially impactful.

Recidivism by Conviction Offense Type and Release Status Among Prisoners Released in Iowa

Recidivism rates vary by conviction offense type and release status. Less is understood regarding associations of conviction offense type and release status on the specific recidivism outcomes of overall recidivism, new recidivism, and technical recidivism. This study examined associations of overall recidivism, new recidivism, and technical recidivism over a 3-year period among individuals released from the Iowa Department of Corrections from 2010 to 2014 ( N = 18,947). Recidivism was operationalized as reincarceration in this study. Drug offenders were the largest group released to supervised parole, and the highest proportion of offenders reincarcerated were drug offenders. Those released without supervision had lower odds of overall recidivism. Findings demonstrate that associations of recidivism outcomes vary based on recidivism operationalization, conviction offense type, and release status.

Employer Perceptions of Hiring Juveniles With Criminal Records

A key determinant of reentry success for justice-involved youth is productive engagement in school or work. Lack of employment for this population is often tied to inadequate vocational training, work experience, job opportunities, or the stigma attached to incarceration. Although very few studies have been conducted on employers’ perceptions of juveniles with criminal records, research suggests that views related to hiring may vary according to crime type. The purpose of this study was to explore how likely employers would be to grant an interview to a juvenile with a criminal background, and what experience, training, or skills employers seek when hiring juveniles with criminal backgrounds. The results indicate that, all else being equal, a juvenile record might penalize an applicant’s opportunities, and also, offense type matters. The implications of this study are discussed in relation to employment preparation and reentry services and supports for justice-involved youth.

Self-Forgiveness Among Incarcerated Individuals in Ghana: Relations With Shame- and Guilt-Proneness

Research on the forgiveness of self has largely focused on less severe, more common types of offenses among samples within developed westernized nations. In this brief report of a study within a developing nation in Africa, applications of self-forgiveness are extended to incarcerated people. The sample comprised N = 310 males (83.87%) and females (16.13%) who were incarcerated in a medium-security Ghanaian prison ( Mage = 39.35, SDage = 13.28). Participants completed measures of self-forgiveness, shame-proneness, and guilt-proneness. Prison records were examined for criminal history details. We hypothesized that self-forgiveness would correlate negatively with shame-proneness and positively with guilt-proneness. We tentatively hypothesized that this association would be moderated by offense type. Self-forgiveness correlated with both shame- and guilt-proneness in the hypothesized direction. However, neither association was moderated by type of offense. The findings offer further evidence on the salience of self-conscious emotions in forgiving oneself, particularly among incarcerated offender populations. We discuss the implications of the findings for enhancing offender rehabilitation initiatives.