Impacts of Migration on Families

The departure of adults from rural homes raises the living standards of the family left behind, but separation of married couples through migration tends to be endemic to particular societies. The proportion of married women left alone in a rural home is particularly large in much of Africa. The incidence of long-term separation before the wife follows the husband into town is high. Yet, more women than men among rural-urban migrants are without their partner who has moved on. The intersection of child and parental migration leaving children in towns with no relative present is shown to be problematic in Haiti and much of Africa. Otherwise, having migrated into town, children are better educated than those remaining at home, but they do not catch up with their urban-born counterparts. Education of children left behind in villages is hurt by maternal migration, though remittance receipts more than offset paternal absence.

Educational Expectations of Left-behind Children in China: Determinants and Gender Differences

In response to the relatively low educational attainment of left-behind children in China, this article examines the determinants of educational expectations among left-behind children and how these differ by gender by analyzing data collected from 2215 left-behind children in southwestern China. Multinomial logistic regression models of educational expectations that incorporate family economic status, care arrangement under different parental migration patterns, and significant others are tested by gender and school level. The results prove that all of the above incorporated factors affect the educational expectations of left-behind children to a considerable extent. Comparisons of educational expectations are made between left-behind children in primary school and junior high school and between different genders. The results show that male advantages in educational expectations exist only during primary school, and female left-behind children surpass male children to have higher educational expectations during junior high school. This suggests a distinctive influence of care arrangements on educational expectations between genders. For female children, grandparental care and a higher frequency of parental contact during migration could be substituted for parental absence. However, for male children, grandparental care does not fully substitute for parental care, and parental migration seems to be more detrimental to them. The findings add to our understanding of the dynamic relationship among parental migration, gender inequality, and educational opportunity among left-behind children in general.

Parental migration and psychological well-being of children. Longitudinal evidence from Ghana

There is limited evidence on the time-varying effects of migration on the psychological well-being of children who stay behind in African contexts. This study is the first to employ panel data to examine this nexus in the context of Ghana. Data were collected in 2013, 2014, and 2015 from school-going children in the age group of 12-21 years. Using children’s self-reports, an analysis was conducted separately for boys (N=781) and girls (N=705). Results indicate that girls and boys with the mother away internally or internationally are equally or more likely to have higher levels of psychological well-being when compared to boys and girls of nonmigrants. Higher level of well-being is observed amongst girls when parents migrate and divorce. However, parental migration and divorce is more likely to increase the psychological vulnerability of boys. In Ghana, the psychological well-being of children is nuanced by which parent has migrated, marital status of migrant parent, and the gender of the child.

Migration, remittances and child education in Ghana. Evidence from a longitudinal study

Evidence on the time-varying effects of migration, remittances and child education in African contexts remains scarce. This study employs panel data to examine educational outcomes – school enjoyment, and class ranking – of children whose parents migrated internally or internationally and who received in-kind remittances, monetary remittances, or both. The data were collected in 2013, 2014, and 2015 on a panel of school going children and youths aged from 12 to 21 in two urban areas with high out-migration rates in Ghana: Kumasi and Sunyani (N = 741). The panel includes children of both migrant and non-migrant parents. Results indicate dynamic patterns of sending remittances over years, with preferences converging towards sending both in-kind and monetary remittances by internal and international migrant parents. Overall, the education of children benefits when they receive both in-kind and monetary remittances. The positive effects are further enhanced when remittances are directly invested in child education. The absence of remittances has more negative effects on child education, especially for girls. This study gives a more nuanced understanding of the dynamic and intertwined associations between parental migration, remittances and the education of children in transnational families.