Evolution of the geological structure and mechanical properties due to the collision of multiple basement topographic highs in a forearc accretionary wedge: insights from numerical simulations

We propose a conceptual geological model for the collision of multiple basement topographic highs (BTHs; e.g., seamounts, ridges, and horsts) with a forearc accretionary wedge. Even though there are many BTHs on an oceanic plate, there are few examples of modeling the collision of multiple BTHs. We conducted numerical simulations using the discrete element method to examine the effects of three BTH collisions with forearcs. The typical geological structure associated with a BTH collision was reproduced during the collision of the first BTH, and multiple BTH collisions create a cycle of formation of BTH collisional structures. Each BTH forces the basal décollement to move up to the roof décollement, and the roof décollement becomes inactive after the passage of the BTH, and then the décollement moves down to the base. As the active décollement position changes, the sequences of underthrust sediments and uplifted imbricate thrusts are sandwiched between the décollements and incorporated into the wedge. At a low horizontal compressive stress, a “shadow zone” is formed behind (i.e., seaward of) the BTH. When the next BTH collides, the horizontal compressive stress increases and tectonic compaction progresses, which reduce the porosity in the underthrust sediments. Heterogeneous evolution of the geological and porosity structure can generate a distinctive pore pressure pattern. The underthrust sediments retain fluid in the “shadow” of the BTH. Under the strong horizontal compressive stresses associated with the next BTH collision, pore pressure increases along with a rapid reduction of porosity in the underthrust sediments. The distinctive structural features observed in our model are comparable to the large faults in the Kumano transect of the Nankai Trough, Japan, where a splay fault branches from the plate boundary and there are old and active décollements. A low-velocity and high-pore-pressure zone is located at the bottom of the accretionary wedge and in front (i.e., landward) of the subducting ridge in the Kumano transect. This suggests that strong horizontal compressive stresses associated with the current BTH collision has increased the pore pressure within the underthrust sediments associated with previous BTHs.

Microseismicity in the central Southern Alps, Westland, New Zealand

<p>Present-day seismicity associated with the central Alpine Fault and the zone of active deformation and rock uplift in the central Southern Alps is reported in this thesis. Robust hypocentre locations and magnitude estimates for ~2300 earthquakes have been obtained analysing 18 months of data from the Southern Alps Microearthquake Borehole Array (SAMBA), designed for this study. The earthquakes are distributed between the Alpine Fault and the Main Divide Fault zone and confined to shallow depths (90% of events ≤12.2 km). The thickness of the seismogenic zone follows lateral variations in crustal resistivity: earthquake hypocentres are restricted to depths where resistivities exceed 390 Ω m. Rocks at greater depth are interpreted to be too hot, too fluid-saturated, or too weak to produce detectable earthquakes. A low-seismicity zone extends between the Whataroa and Wanganui rivers at distances 15–30 km southeast of the fault, which is concluded to be a relatively strong, unfractured block that diverts deformation around it. A new magnitude scale is developed incorporating the effects of frequency-dependent attenuation, which enables magnitudes to be calculated consistently for earthquakes of different sizes and frequency contents. Focal mechanism solutions for 379 earthquakes exhibit predominantly strike-slip mechanisms. Inversion of these focal mechanisms to determine the prevailing tectonic stress field reveals a maximum horizontal compressive stress direction of 115±10°, consistent with findings from elsewhere in South Island. The 60° angle between the strike of the Alpine Fault and the direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress suggests that the Alpine Fault is poorly oriented in an Andersonian sense. Earthquake swarms of at least 10 events with similar waveforms frequently occur within the region, of which some were remotely triggered by two major South Island earthquakes. Focal mechanisms of the largest event in each swarm (ML≤2.8) reveal at least one steeply-dipping nodal plane (≥50°) and one well-oriented nodal plane in the tectonic stress field. The swarms exhibit a distinctly different inter-event time versus duration pattern from that of typical mainshock-aftershock sequences. The triggered seismicity commences with the passage of the surface waves, continues for ~5 and ~2 days, and is followed by a quiescence period of approximately equal length. Remotely triggered swarms occur delayed by several hours and their delay and locations are consistent with fluid diffusion from a shallow fluid reservoir. Estimated peak dynamic stresses (≥0.09 MPa) imposed by the surface waves are comparable to observations of triggering thresholds (>0.01 MPa) elsewhere. The triggered swarms have no apparent differences from the background swarms, and appear to have been clock-advanced. Tectonic tremor in the vicinity of the Alpine Fault coincides with a low-velocity, high-attenuation zone at depth. The tremor occurs at the downdip extension of the Alpine Fault and in the region where bending of the Australian and Pacific plates is largest at depths spanning 12–49 km. Similarities with tremor occurring on the San Andreas Fault near Cholame in terms of tremor duration, depth, spatial extent and amplitude distribution, imply property variations in the lower crust and upper mantle along the strike of the Alpine Fault.</p>

Microseismicity in the central Southern Alps, Westland, New Zealand

<p>Present-day seismicity associated with the central Alpine Fault and the zone of active deformation and rock uplift in the central Southern Alps is reported in this thesis. Robust hypocentre locations and magnitude estimates for ~2300 earthquakes have been obtained analysing 18 months of data from the Southern Alps Microearthquake Borehole Array (SAMBA), designed for this study. The earthquakes are distributed between the Alpine Fault and the Main Divide Fault zone and confined to shallow depths (90% of events ≤12.2 km). The thickness of the seismogenic zone follows lateral variations in crustal resistivity: earthquake hypocentres are restricted to depths where resistivities exceed 390 Ω m. Rocks at greater depth are interpreted to be too hot, too fluid-saturated, or too weak to produce detectable earthquakes. A low-seismicity zone extends between the Whataroa and Wanganui rivers at distances 15–30 km southeast of the fault, which is concluded to be a relatively strong, unfractured block that diverts deformation around it. A new magnitude scale is developed incorporating the effects of frequency-dependent attenuation, which enables magnitudes to be calculated consistently for earthquakes of different sizes and frequency contents. Focal mechanism solutions for 379 earthquakes exhibit predominantly strike-slip mechanisms. Inversion of these focal mechanisms to determine the prevailing tectonic stress field reveals a maximum horizontal compressive stress direction of 115±10°, consistent with findings from elsewhere in South Island. The 60° angle between the strike of the Alpine Fault and the direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress suggests that the Alpine Fault is poorly oriented in an Andersonian sense. Earthquake swarms of at least 10 events with similar waveforms frequently occur within the region, of which some were remotely triggered by two major South Island earthquakes. Focal mechanisms of the largest event in each swarm (ML≤2.8) reveal at least one steeply-dipping nodal plane (≥50°) and one well-oriented nodal plane in the tectonic stress field. The swarms exhibit a distinctly different inter-event time versus duration pattern from that of typical mainshock-aftershock sequences. The triggered seismicity commences with the passage of the surface waves, continues for ~5 and ~2 days, and is followed by a quiescence period of approximately equal length. Remotely triggered swarms occur delayed by several hours and their delay and locations are consistent with fluid diffusion from a shallow fluid reservoir. Estimated peak dynamic stresses (≥0.09 MPa) imposed by the surface waves are comparable to observations of triggering thresholds (>0.01 MPa) elsewhere. The triggered swarms have no apparent differences from the background swarms, and appear to have been clock-advanced. Tectonic tremor in the vicinity of the Alpine Fault coincides with a low-velocity, high-attenuation zone at depth. The tremor occurs at the downdip extension of the Alpine Fault and in the region where bending of the Australian and Pacific plates is largest at depths spanning 12–49 km. Similarities with tremor occurring on the San Andreas Fault near Cholame in terms of tremor duration, depth, spatial extent and amplitude distribution, imply property variations in the lower crust and upper mantle along the strike of the Alpine Fault.</p>

Evolution of the geological structure and mechanical properties due to the collision of multiple basement topographic highs in a forearc accretionary wedge: Insights from numerical simulations

We propose a conceptual geological model for the collision of multiple basement topographic highs (BTHs; e.g., seamounts, ridges, and horsts) with a forearc accretionary wedge. Even though there are many BTHs on an oceanic plate, there are few examples of modeling the collision of multiple BTHs. We conducted numerical simulations using the discrete element method to examine the effects of three BTH collisions with forearcs. The typical geological structure associated with a BTH collision was reproduced during the collision of the first BTH, and multiple BTH collisions create a cycle of formation of BTH collisional structures. Each BTH forces the basal décollement to move up to the roof décollement, and the roof décollement becomes inactive after the passage of the BTH, and then the décollement moves down to the base. As the active décollement position changes, the sequences of underthrust sediments and uplifted imbricate thrusts are sandwiched between the décollements and incorporated into the wedge. At a low horizontal compressive stress, a “shadow zone” is formed behind (i.e., seaward of) the BTH. When the next BTH collides, the horizontal compressive stress increases and tectonic compaction progresses, which reduce the porosity in the underthrust sediments. Heterogeneous evolution of the geological and porosity structure can generate a distinctive pore pressure pattern. The underthrust sediments retain fluid in the “shadow” of the BTH. Under the strong horizontal compressive stresses associated with the next BTH collision, pore pressure increases along with a rapid reduction of porosity in the underthrust sediments. The distinctive structural features observed in our model are comparable to the large faults in the Kumano transect of the Nankai Trough, Japan, where a splay fault branches from the plate boundary and there are old and active décollements. A low-velocity and high-pore-pressure zone are located at the bottom of the accretionary wedge and in front (i.e., landward) of the subducting ridge in the Kumano transect. This suggests that strong horizontal compressive stresses associated with the current BTH collision has increased the pore pressure within the underthrust sediments associated with previous BTHs.

Estimation of the orientation of stress in the Earth’s crust without earthquake or borehole data

Mechanical stress acting in the Earth’s crust is a fundamental property that is important for a wide range of scientific and engineering applications. The orientation of maximum horizontal compressive stress can be estimated by inverting earthquake source mechanisms and measured directly from borehole-based measurements, but large regions of the continents have few or no observations. Here we present an approach to determine the orientation of maximum horizontal compressive stress by measuring stress-induced anisotropy of nonlinear susceptibility, which is the derivative of elastic modulus with respect to strain. Laboratory and Earth experiments show that nonlinear susceptibility is azimuthally dependent in an anisotropic stress field and is maximum in the orientation of maximum horizontal compressive stress. We observe this behavior in the Earth—in Oklahoma and New Mexico, U.S.A, where maximum nonlinear susceptibility coincides with the orientation of maximum horizontal compressive stress measured using traditional methods. Our measurements use empirical Green’s functions and solid-earth tides and can be applied at different temporal and spatial scales.

Models of overpressure build-up in shallow sediments by glacial deposition and glacial loading with respect to chimney formation

Chimneys and pipe structures have been observed in the caprock above the Utsira Aquifer in the North Sea. The caprock is of Pleistocene age and the chimneys appear to have been formed by natural hydraulic fracturing towards the end of the last glaciation. We study six different models for the pressure build-up in the Utsira Aquifer with respect to chimney formation. The first two models produce overpressure by a rapid deposition of glacial sediments. Using these two models, we show that the caprock permeability must be as low as 100 nD for sufficiently strong overpressure to develop. This value seems to be one order of magnitude lower than the measured permeabilities of the caprock. The four remaining models produce overpressure by a glacial loading of the caprock and the aquifer. This study shows that a 1-D model of a caprock with soil properties cannot produce conditions for chimney formation unless the least horizontal compressive stress is much less than the overburden. Furthermore, a 1-D poroelastic model of glacial loading of an aquifer and a caprock cannot produce conditions for chimney formation based on available geomechanical data. However, we demonstrate that a 2-D poroelastic model can produce conditions for chimney formation with glacial loads that partially cover the surface.

Measuring SHmax with Stress-Induced Anisotropy in Nonlinear Anelastic Behavior

Mechanical stress acting in the Earth`s crust is a fundamental property that has a wide range of geophysical applications, from tectonic movements to energy production. The orientation of maximum horizontal compressive stress, SHmax can be estimated by inverting earthquake source mechanisms and directly from borehole-based measurements, but large regions of the continents have few or no observations. Available observations often represent a variety of length scales and depths, and can be difficult to reconcile. Here we present a new approach to determine SHmax by measuring stress induced anisotropy of nonlinear susceptibility. We observe that nonlinear susceptibility is azimuthally dependent in the Earth and maximum when parallel to SHmax, as predicted by laboratory experiments. Our measurements use empirical Green’s functions that are applicable for different temporal and spatial scales. The method can quantify the orientation of SHmax in regions where no measurements exist today.

Microseismicity and stress in the vicinity of the Alpine Fault, central Southern Alps, New Zealand

We investigate present-day microseismicity associated with the central Alpine Fault and the zone of active deformation and uplift in the central Southern Alps. Using 14 months of data, robust hypocenter locations have been obtained for ∼1800 earthquakes of magnitudes between -0.3 and 4.2. We derived a magnitude scale with a frequency-dependent attenuation factor, γ(f) = γ0f, where γ0 = 1.89 ± 0.02 × 10-3 s/km, that enables magnitudes to be calculated consistently for earthquakes of different sizes and frequency contents. The maximum depth of the seismicity varies systematically with distance from the Alpine Fault, from 10 ± 2 km near the fault to 8 ± 2 km within 20 km and 15 ± 2 km further southeast. This distribution correlates with lateral variations in crustal resistivity: earthquake hypocenters are concentrated in areas of strong resistivity gradients and restricted to depths of resistivities >100 Ωm. Rocks at greater depth are too hot, too fluid-saturated, or too weak to produce detectable earthquakes. Focal mechanism solutions computed for 211 earthquakes (ML > 0.44) exhibit predominantly strike-slip mechanisms. We obtain a maximum horizontal compressive stress direction of 115 ± 10° from focal mechanism inversion. This azimuth is consistent with findings from elsewhere in the central and northern South Island, and indicates a uniform crustal stress field despite pronounced variations in crustal structure and topographic relief. Our stress estimates suggest that the Alpine Fault (with a mean strike of 055°) is poorly oriented in an Andersonian sense but that individual thrust and strike-slip segments of the fault's surface trace have close to optimal orientations. Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union.

Microseismicity and stress in the vicinity of the Alpine Fault, central Southern Alps, New Zealand

We investigate present-day microseismicity associated with the central Alpine Fault and the zone of active deformation and uplift in the central Southern Alps. Using 14 months of data, robust hypocenter locations have been obtained for ∼1800 earthquakes of magnitudes between -0.3 and 4.2. We derived a magnitude scale with a frequency-dependent attenuation factor, γ(f) = γ0f, where γ0 = 1.89 ± 0.02 × 10-3 s/km, that enables magnitudes to be calculated consistently for earthquakes of different sizes and frequency contents. The maximum depth of the seismicity varies systematically with distance from the Alpine Fault, from 10 ± 2 km near the fault to 8 ± 2 km within 20 km and 15 ± 2 km further southeast. This distribution correlates with lateral variations in crustal resistivity: earthquake hypocenters are concentrated in areas of strong resistivity gradients and restricted to depths of resistivities >100 Ωm. Rocks at greater depth are too hot, too fluid-saturated, or too weak to produce detectable earthquakes. Focal mechanism solutions computed for 211 earthquakes (ML > 0.44) exhibit predominantly strike-slip mechanisms. We obtain a maximum horizontal compressive stress direction of 115 ± 10° from focal mechanism inversion. This azimuth is consistent with findings from elsewhere in the central and northern South Island, and indicates a uniform crustal stress field despite pronounced variations in crustal structure and topographic relief. Our stress estimates suggest that the Alpine Fault (with a mean strike of 055°) is poorly oriented in an Andersonian sense but that individual thrust and strike-slip segments of the fault's surface trace have close to optimal orientations. Copyright 2012 by the American Geophysical Union.

State of stress in central and eastern North American seismic zones

We use a Bayesian analysis to determine the state of stress from focal mechanisms in ten seismic zones in central and eastern North America and compare it with regional stress inferred from borehole measurements. Comparisons of the seismologically determined azimuth of the maximum horizontal compressive stress (S HS ) with that determined from boreholes (S HB ) exhibit a bimodal pattern: In four zones, the S HS and regional S HB orientations are closely parallel, whereas in the Charlevoix, Lower St. Lawrence, and Central Virginia zones, the S HS azimuth shows a statistically significant 30°-50° clockwise rotation relative to the regional S HB azimuth. This pattern is exemplified by the northwest and southeast seismicity clusters in Charlevoix, which yield S HS orientations strictly parallel and strongly oblique, respectively, to the regional S HB trend. Similar ~30° clockwise rotations are found for the North Appalachian zone and for the 2003 Bardwell earthquake sequence north of the New Madrid zone. The S HB /S HS rotations occur over 20-100 km in each seismic zone, but they are observed in zones separated by distances of up to 1500 km. A possible mechanism for the stress rotations may be the interaction between a long-wavelength stress perturbation source, such as postglacial rebound, and local stress concentrators, such as low-friction faults. The latter would allow low-magnitude (<10 MPa) postglacial rebound stresses to locally perturb the preexisting stress field in some seismic zones, whereas postglacial rebound stresses have little effect on the intraplate state of stress in general. © 2010 Geological Society of America.