Fan-shaped Spectrums of Species and Paleopolyploidy for Foundation of Crossbreeding Evolution

Although Darwin‘s evolutionary mutation theory has been widely accepted, many endeavors tried to challenge it. With more and more observation of successful hybridization and hybrids, the sexual isolation between species has become vague. The mechanism of evolution has been expanded from the classical model of evolution to multiple routes of speciation. Furthermore, a fundamental crossbreeding theory has been raised and proved by two lines of evidences: paleopolyploidy and fan-shaped spectrum of species. Ancient genome duplications are widespread throughout eukaryotic lineages, particularly in plants. The genome polyploidization can break through the sexual incompatibility between diploid counterparts to hybridize and produce new species. By comparing characteristics, all species in every taxon, both in the extinct fossil and extant organisms, can be arranged into fan-shaped spectrum according to their similarity: left primitive type-middle advanced type-right primitive type. The species are primitive at the two ends and advanced at the middle. The primitive two species always resemble two types of more primitive species that can be confirmed as their ancestors respectively, and the middle species is half similar to the two ancestors respectively. These suggest that the species in the spectrum come from two different ancestors by crossbreeding and gene combination. As a sum, advanced species originated from crossbreeding of two primitive ancestors, by major method of polyploidization, and proved by results of fan-shaped spectrum of species. Then, sex is the cause, force and opportunity for evolution.

Evolution of irreversible somatic differentiation

A key innovation emerging in complex animals is irreversible somatic differentiation: daughters of a vegetative cell perform a vegetative function as well, thus, forming a somatic lineage that can no longer be directly involved in reproduction. Primitive species use a different strategy: vegetative and reproductive tasks are separated in time rather than in space. Starting from such a strategy, how is it possible to evolve life forms which use some of their cells exclusively for vegetative functions? Here, we develop an evolutionary model of development of a simple multicellular organism and find that three components are necessary for the evolution of irreversible somatic differentiation: (i) costly cell differentiation, (ii) vegetative cells that significantly improve the organism’s performance even if present in small numbers, and (iii) large enough organism size. Our findings demonstrate how an egalitarian development typical for loose cell colonies can evolve into germ-soma differentiation dominating metazoans.

The interrelationship between female reproductive aging and survival

The link between survival and reproductive function is demonstrated across many species and is under both long-term evolutionary pressures and short-term environmental pressures. Loss of reproductive function is common in mammals and is strongly correlated with increased rates of disease in both males and females. However, the reproduction-associated change in disease rates is more abrupt and more severe in women, who benefit from a significant health advantage over men until the age of menopause. Young women with early ovarian failure also suffer from increased disease risks, further supporting the role of ovarian function in female health. Contemporary experiments where the influence of young ovarian tissue has been restored in post-reproductive-aged females with surgical manipulation were found to increase survival significantly. In these experiments, young, intact ovaries were used to replace the aged ovaries of females that had already reached reproductive cessation. As has been seen previously in primitive species, when the young mammalian ovaries were depleted of germ cells prior to transplantation to the post-reproductive female, survival was increased even further than with germ cell-containing young ovaries. Thus, extending reproductive potential significantly increases survival and appears to be germ cell and ovarian hormone-independent. The current review will discuss historical and contemporary observations and theories that support the link between reproduction and survival and provide hope for future clinical applications to decrease menopause-associated increases in disease risks.

Rudist bivalves (Hippuritoidea) from the Clifton Limestone (Lower Campanian) of western Jamaica and a reassessment of the genus Vaccinites in the Americas

The lower Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) Clifton Limestone of Jamaica yields three species of hippuritid bivalve: Barrettia ruseae CHUBB, Whitfieldiella luceae sp. nov. and Vaccinites vermunti MAC GILLAVRY, and the plagioptychid: Plagioptychus sp. The hippuritids are described in detail using statistics. Barrettia ruseae is demonstrated to be a more primitive species of Barrettia than B. monilifera WOODWARD or B. multilirata WHITFIELD, and the species Whitfieldiella luceae is shown to be a more primitive species of Whitfieldiella than W. gigas CHUBB. The specimens of Vaccinites from the Clifton Limestone are compared with populations of Vaccinites from elsewhere in the Americas, and five species (probably representing a single evolutionary lineage) are recognized: V. alencasteri sp. nov. (?late Turonian-?Coniacian), V. martini MAC GILLAVRY (probably early to mid Santonian), V. macgillavryi PALMER (probably mid to late Santonian), V. vermunti MAC GILLAVRY (earliest Campanian), and V. temazcali sp. nov. (late early Campanian). The Vaccinites species can be distinguished using statistical techniques. The ages of the Clifton Limestone and the five Vaccinites species are reviewed. This research demonstrates the value of using hippuritids for biostratigraphy in the Upper Cretaceous of the Americas.

Evolution of irreversible somatic differentiation

A key innovation emerging in complex animals is irreversible somatic differentiation: daughters of a vegetative cell perform a vegetative function as well, thus, forming a somatic lineage that can no longer be directly involved in reproduction. Primitive species use a different strategy: vegetative and reproductive tasks are separated in time rather than in space. Starting from such a strategy, how is it possible to evolve life forms which use some of their cells exclusively for vegetative functions? Here, we developed an evolutionary model of development of a simple multicellular organism and found that three components are necessary for the evolution of irreversible somatic differentiation: (i) costly cell differentiation, (ii) vegetative cells that significantly improve the organism’s performance even if present in small numbers, and (iii) large enough organism size. Our findings demonstrate how an egalitarian development typical for loose cell colonies can evolve into germ-soma differentiation dominating metazoans.

Unique Members of the Adipokinetic Hormone Family in Butterflies and Moths (Insecta, Lepidoptera)

Lepidoptera is amongst one of the four most speciose insect orders and ecologically very successful because of their ability to fly. Insect flight is always aerobic and exacts a high metabolic demand on the animal. A family of structurally related neuropeptides, generically referred to as adipokinetic hormones (AKHs), play a key role in triggering the release of readily utilizable fuel metabolites into the hemolymph from the storage forms in the fat body. We used mass spectrometry to elucidate AKH sequences from 34 species of Lepidoptera and searched the literature and publicly available databases to compile (in a phylogenetic context) a comprehensive list of all Lepidoptera sequences published/predicted from a total of 76 species. We then used the resulting set of 15 biochemically characterized AKHs in a physiological assay that measures lipid or carbohydrate mobilization in three different lepidopteran species to learn about the functional cross-activity (receptor-ligand interactions) amongst the different butterfly/moth families. Our results include novel peptide structures, demonstrate structural diversity, phylogenetic trends in peptide distribution and order-specificity of Lepidoptera AKHs. There is almost an equal occurrence of octa-, nona-, and decapeptides, with an unparalleled emphasis on nonapeptides than in any insect order. Primitive species make Peram-CAH-II, an octapeptide found also in other orders; the lepidopteran signature peptide is Manse-AKH. Not all of the 15 tested AKHs are active in Pieris brassicae; this provides insight into structure-activity specificity and could be useful for further investigations into possible biorational insecticide development.

Handicap theory is applied to females but not males in relation to mate choice in the stalk-eyed fly Sphyracephala detrahens

Handicap theory explains that exaggeratedly developed sexual traits become handicaps but serve as honest signals of quality. Because very weak signals are less likely to provide benefits than to simply incur costs, it is interesting to elucidate how sexual traits are generated and developed during evolution. Many stalk-eyed fly species belonging to tribe Diopsini exhibit marked sexual dimorphism in their eye spans, and males with larger eye spans have larger bodies and reproductive capacities, which are more advantageous in terms of contests between males and acceptance for mating by females. In this study, we investigated the role of eye span in a more primitive species, Sphyracephala detrahens, in tribe Sphyracephalini with less pronounced sexual dimorphism. Male-male, female-female, and male–female pairs showed similar contests influenced by eye span, which was correlated with nutrition and reproductive ability in both sexes. During mating, males did not distinguish between sexes and chose individuals with larger eye spans, whereas females did not choose males. However, males with larger eye spans copulated repeatedly. These results indicate that, in this species, eye span with a small sexual difference does not function in sex recognition but affects contest and reproductive outcomes, suggesting the primitive state of sexual dimorphism.

Fan-shaped Spectrums of Species and Paleopolyploidy for Crossbreeding Evolution

Although Darwin‘s evolutionary mutation theory has been widely accepted, many endeavors tried to challenge it. With more and more observation of successful hybridization and hybrids, the sexual isolation between species has become vague. The mechanism of evolution has been expanded from the classical model of evolution to multiple routes of speciation. Furthermore, a fundamental crossbreeding theory has been raised and proved by two lines of evidences: paleopolyploidy and fan-shaped spectrum of species. Ancient genome duplications are widespread throughout eukaryotic lineages, particularly in plants. The genome polyploidization can break through the sexual incompatibility between diploid counterparts to hybridize and produce new species. By comparing characteristics, all species in every taxon, both in the extinct fossil and extant organisms, can be arranged into fan-shaped spectrum according to their similarity: left primitive type-middle advanced type-right primitive type. The species are primitive at the two ends and advanced at the middle. The primitive two species always resemble two types of more primitive species that can be confirmed as their ancestors respectively, and the middle species is half similar to the two ancestors respectively. These suggest that the species in the spectrum come from two different ancestors by crossbreeding and gene combination. As a sum, advanced species originated from crossbreeding of two primitive ancestors, by major method of polyploidization, and proved by results of fan-shaped spectrum of species. Then, sex is the cause, force and opportunity for evolution.

The lower–middle Viséan boundary interval in the Palaeotethys: refinements for the foraminiferal zonal schemes

A new foraminiferal subzone (Cf5α or MFZ12α) in between the classical foraminiferal zonal biozones is characterized by the first occurrence of Archaediscus at concavus stage, primitive species of Pojarkovella, as well as the first Endothyranopsis s.s. This interval is represented in England, France and Morocco (in the western Palaeotethys) and in South China, and more widely in Iran (in the eastern Palaeotethys), where it is partly similar to the MFZ11B subzone defined by previous authors. The position of this new biozone within the Livian or Holkerian substages suggests that it has to be considered as part of the middle Viséan substage. We therefore propose the abandonment of the notation MFZ11B, which includes lower Viséan rocks, and the subdivision of the middle Viséan zones MFZ12 and Cf5 into two subzones MFZ12α or Cf5α, and MFZ12β or Cf5β, with the latter subzone containing the classical Livian–Holkerian foraminiferal guides Pojarkovella nibelis and Koskinotextularia. Furthermore, the lower Viséan MFZ11 zone can be subdivided in most Palaeotethyan basins into three subzones: a lower MFZ11α subzone (characterized by the first occurrence of Uralodiscus rotundus, as well as most species of Glomodiscus); a middle MFZ11β subzone (characterized by the first occurrence of Archaediscus at involutus stage and Conilidiscus); and an upper MFZ11γ subzone (characterized by the first occurrence of Nodosarchaediscus, Consobrinellopsis and Lituotubella).

Pharmacological modulation of MRAP2 protein on melanocortin receptors in the sea lamprey

Melanocortin receptors (MCRs) and their accessory proteins (MRAPs) evolutionarily first appear in the genome of sea lamprey. The most ancient melanocortin system consists of only two melanocortin receptors (slMCa and slMCb) and one MRAP2 (slMRAP2) protein, but the physiological roles have not been fully explored in this primitive species. Here, we synthesize and characterize the pharmacological features of slMRAP2 protein on two slMCRs. Our results show that the slMRAP2 protein lacks the long carboxyl terminus; it directly interacts and decreases the surface expression but enhances the α-MSH-induced agonism of slMCa and slMCb. In comparison with higher organisms such as elephant shark and zebrafish, we also demonstrate the constantly evolving regulatory function of the carboxyl terminus of MRAP2 protein, the unique antiparallel topology of slMRAP2 dimer and the homo- and hetero-dimerization of two slMCRs. This study elucidates the presence and modulation of melanocortin receptor by the accessory protein of the agnathans for the first time, which provides a better insight of the melanocortin system in ancient species of chordates.