Gene flow: monitoring, modeling and mitigation

Over two decades later, gene flow research as it pertains to genetically engineered crops is still going strong, even in the face of the absence of ecological disasters in the nearly 30 years of widescale biotech crop commercialization. Nonetheless, ecological timeframes are within the study scope of the sort of research performed to date covered in this book. These studies have greatly informed regulations that govern biotech crops. The chapters in this book capture various aspects of scientific disciplines that span from organismal studies, to population and community ecology, to molecular biology.

Plant breeding and biotechnological achievements

Biotechnology is a rapidly developing field with great potential for finding solutions for sustainable approaches to agriculture. The main topic of this article is the analysis of biotech crops presented in the world food market.

GMOs AND GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

The main aim of the paper was an analysis of the present status and changes of commercially grown genetically modified crops and food security from 2012 to 2018, based on the Global Food Security Index by countries. The work used a descriptive approach with elements of inductive reasoning and meta-analysis based on secondary data, derived from Briefs of The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, FAOSTAT and the GFSI, developed and calculated by The Economist Intelligence Unit. The study showed the highest increase in biotech crops was observed in Brazil and the USA, i.e. in countries with a relatively high level of GFSI. Accordingly, the highest positive change in GFSI was achieved in several countries both with quite a high level of GFSI (Chile, Uruguay and Argentina) and with a very low GFSI (Burkina Faso and Myanmar). A slightly positive Pearson correlation coefficient for the area of biotech crops and GFSI indicated that, in the analysed period, when an increase in GM crop area was observed, the value of the GFSI increased as well. However, the value of the Pearson correlation means that the biotech crop area can be considered one of the many factors influencing the food security of the studied countries. The results show that biotech crops cannot only be analysed in the context of food security at a country level, but also at a household level. GM crops could contribute to food production increases and higher food availability, however not necessarily to food security, especially at a country level.

Insect-Resistant Genetically Modified Crops: Regulation Framework and Current Situation in Argentina

Worldwide, there are many Insect-Resistant Genetically Modified Crops (IR-GMCs) planted with the purpose of controlling their many insect pests. All genetically modified (GM) plants have to pass through a regulatory system before being commercialized. In the case of Argentina, specific information is requested for these particular GM crops. This review will cover all the data required of IR-GMCs in Argentina in relation to insect resistance to the insecticidal products expressed (the most common in Argentina: Bt proteins) as well as the current situation of Bt crops in Argentina. From earliest times, man has used living organisms and their products in order to produce goods and services to meet their basic needs. For instance, man has modified, first unconsciously and then intentionally, the genome of many commodities so as to obtain improved cultivars. Taking the example of maize, its ancestor, the teocintle, is different in appearance (compared to the maize we consume nowadays). The selection process, which has taken place over many years, introduced improvement in many phenotypic characteristics such as the size of the grain. This example illustrates what is considered "Traditional Agrobiotechnology" or 'Traditional Plant Breeding'. The advent of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology in the second half of the 20th century has opened the door to "Modern Agrobiotechnology". The increase of agricultural production worldwide is demanded by a constantly increasing global population. As result of this, man has taken advantage of this valued tool so as to produce more in the same amount of land in a sustainable and cost-effective way. Thus different kinds of crops have been genetically engineered around the world with beneficial traits like insect resistance, herbicide tolerance and nutritional improvement. Worldwide, insects are a major cause of crop damage and yield loss, often requiring farmers to make multiple applications of chemical insecticides to control pests. For that reason, the commercial release of IR-GMCs also called Insect-resistant biotech crops has been an important contribution from Modern Agrobiotechnology to increase the global agricultural production. By the end of 2016, the cultivated area under GM crops reached 185.1 million hectares. 53% of that area was planted with IR-GMCs (single and stacked events with tolerance to herbicides). The commercialized genetically engineering crops that have protection against insect damage around the world are cotton, maize, soybean, potato, rice, tomato, eggplant and poplar. Insect-resistant biotech crops provide a number of benefits, such as a reduction in the use of chemical insecticides, improvement in yield, quality and lower production costs compared to the conventional crops.

Adding Biodiversity to Agricultural Landscapes Through Ecology and Biotechnology

Agriculture is practiced on 38% of the landmass on Earth, and having replaced natural ecosystems, it is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth. Agricultural biomes are typically focused on annual crops that are produced as a succession of genetically uniform monocultures. Compared to the ecosystems they replaced, agroecosystems provide fewer ecosystem functions and contain much less biodiversity. The large-scale conversion from natural lands to agriculture occurred centuries ago in the Old World (Africa, China, Europe, and India), but in many areas during the latter 20th and early 21st centuries, especially tropical areas with rich biodiversity, agriculture is an emerging industry. Here, displacement of natural ecosystems is also a late 20th-century occurrence, and much of it is ongoing. Regardless of where or when agriculture was established, biodiversity declined and ecosystem services were eroded. Agricultural practices are the second largest contributor to biodiversity loss, due to the loss of habitat, competition for resources, and pesticide use. Most (~96%) of the land used to produce crops is farmed using conventional methods, while smaller percentages are under organic production (~2%) or are producing biotech crops (~4%). Regardless of how agriculture is practiced, it exacts a toll on biodiversity and ecosystem services. While organic agriculture embraces many ecological principals in producing food, it fails to recognize the value of biotechnology as a tool to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture. Herbicide- and/or insect-resistant crops are the most widely planted biotech crops worldwide. Biotech crops in general, but especially insect-resistant crops, reduce pesticide use and increase biodiversity. The widespread adoption of glyphosate-resistant crops increased the use of this herbicide, and resistance evolved in weeds. On the other hand, glyphosate has less environmental impacts than other herbicides. Because of the limited scale of biotech production, it will not have large impacts on mitigating the effects of agriculture on biodiversity and ecosystem services. To have any hope of reducing the environmental impact of agriculture, agro-ecology principals and biotechnology will need to be incorporated. Monetizing biodiversity and ecosystem services through incorporation into commodity prices will incentivize producers to be part of the biodiversity solution. A multi-level biodiversity certification is proposed that is a composite score of the biodiversity and ecosystem services of an individual farm and the growing region were the food is produced. Such a system would add value to the products from farms and ranches proportionate to the level by which their farm and region provides biodiversity and ecosystem services as the natural ecosystem it replaced.