Sexual Double Standards: Contributions of Sexual Socialization by Parents, Peers, and the Media

Abstract(Hetero)sexual double standards (SDS) entail that different sexual behaviors are appropriate for men and women. There is large variation in whether people endorse SDS in their expectations about the sexual behavior of women and men (i.e., SDS-norms). To explain these individual differences, we examined associations between SDS-norms of Dutch adolescents (aged 16–20 years, N = 566) and what parents, peers, and the media teach adolescents about appropriate sexual behavior of boys and girls (i.e., SDS-socialization). Adolescents completed an online survey at school. Regarding SDS-socialization, more traditional SDS-norms conveyed by the media and peers, but not of parents, and less perceived sexual activity of female peers, were associated with more traditional SDS-norms. Only for boys, exposure to sexy girls/women on social media and sexual music videos of female artists were associated with more traditional SDS-norms. Thus, SDS-socialization by peers and the media and opposite gender models (for boys) are important in light of adolescents’ SDS-norms.

Teen Girls’ Experiences Negotiating the Ubiquitous Dick Pic: Sexual Double Standards and the Normalization of Image Based Sexual Harassment

A range of important studies have recently explored adult women’s experiences of receiving unwanted dick pics (Amundsen, 2020). However, to date there has been limited research that has explored teen girls’ experiences of receiving unwanted penis images in depth. To address this gap we draw upon our findings from a qualitative study using focus group interviews and arts based drawing methods to explore social media image sharing practices with 144 young people aged 11–18 in seven secondary schools in England. We argue that being bombarded with unwanted dick pics on social media platforms like Snapchat normalises harassing practices as signs of desirability and popularity for girls, but suggest that being sent unsolicited dick pics from boys at school is more difficult for girls to manage or report than ignoring or blocking random older senders. We also found that due to sexual double standards girls were not able to leverage dick pics for status in the same way boys can use girls’ nudes as social currency, since girls faced the possibility of being shamed for being known recipients of dick pics. Finally we explore how some girls challenge abusive elements of toxic masculinity in the drawing sessions and our conclusion argues that unwanted dick pics should always be understood as forms of image based sexual harassment.

Factors Related to Gender Violence and Sex Education in Adolescents: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: For school medical services and the staff responsible for sex education for adolescents, it is important to understand the factors that may influence gender violence. The aim of this study is to determine whether the presence of sexist attitudes, double standards and/or romantic myths contributes to the risk of gender violence. Methods: This cross-sectional study was carried out at five secondary schools in the province of Malaga (Spain). In total, 879 adolescents aged 12–18 years were included, studying years 1–4 of compulsory secondary education. Their attitudes were measured on the following scales: Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), Double Standard Scale (DSS) and Romantic Love Myths Scale (EMA). Results: Significant differences were observed among the age/year groups for the mean scores obtained on each of the above scales (DSS, p < 0.01; EMA, p < 0.01; ASI, p < 0.01). By gender, the boys recorded higher scores for ASI and lower ones for DSS (p < 0.01). The Spearman’s rho value revealed significant relationships between the presence of sexual double standards and that of romantic myths and ambivalent attitudes (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Adolescents commonly express romantic love myths, sexist attitudes and sexual double standards. These three factors, which are significantly correlated, influence the presence of violence in dating relationships.

Why College Women and Men Refrain from Sex Despite Desire

Humans have sex for a multitude of reasons, many of which are unrelated to desire. But what are the conditions in which sexual desire does not lead to sex? We investigated reasons college students refrain from sex despite desire and having an attractive, willing partner along with relationships between these reasons and other aspects of sexuality and personality. For item generation, 604 college participants identified 109 reasons why individuals may refrain from sex despite desire. For construct validation, 712 participants reported the frequency that they experienced these reasons on a novel No Sex Despite Desire measure. Every reason that evidenced discernible gender differences was endorsed more by women. These items were largely concentrated in the factors that emerged of Personal Insecurities (negative emotions or self-evaluations surrounding the act) and Principled Concerns (values and morals preventing sex to occur). However, women and men did not discernibly differ on the Partner Issues factor (perceiving issues with potential partner). These factors also differentially related to sexual and personality variables. Principled Concerns negatively related to sociosexuality for men and women and to less acceptance of sexual double standards for men. Partner Issues positively correlated with sociosexuality and sexual guilt for women. Principled Concerns related to issues of sexual functioning for women, whereas Personal Insecurities related to issues of sexual functioning for men. Finally, Personal Insecurities was related to Neuroticism for both men and women. Based on our research, the desire to refrain from sex despite desire seems multifaceted and highly related to gender.

4. Friendship, family, love

“Friendship, family, love” locates some of Montaigne’s pronouncements on these topics in a Renaissance context. At the time, the word amitié covered a broader spectrum of love than friendship—though Montaigne’s friendship with la Boétie was tinged with eroticism. What are we to make of his disparaging comments about women? Surprisingly aware of the sexual double standards of his day, Montaigne believed that a good marriage resembled a friendship and that books—“children of the mind”—were as significant as flesh-and-blood children. What would his wife and daughter think of these writings, and how should we judge his shifting claims?

Not One Sexual Double Standard but Two? Adolescents’ Attitudes About Appropriate Sexual Behavior

Popular belief holds that sexual behavior is evaluated more liberally for males than females. However, the assessment of this “sexual double standard” is controversial. Therefore, we investigated measurement equivalence of commonly used items to assess sexual double standards in previous research. Based on established measurement equivalence, we investigated whether adolescents endorsed a sexual double standard. Using data from 455 adolescents ( Mage = 14.51, SD = 0.64), confirmatory factor analyzes showed that the sexual double standard concept was measurement equivalent across sex, and partly across evaluations of the same and opposite sex. Factor analyzes demonstrated that there was not one, but two sexual double standards. Male adolescents evaluated male sexual behavior more liberally than female sexual behavior, but female adolescents evaluated female sexual behavior more liberally than male sexual behavior. This contradicts the traditional notion of the existence of one sexual double standard that favors male and suppresses female sexuality.

He is a Stud, She is a Slut! A Meta-Analysis on the Continued Existence of Sexual Double Standards

(Hetero)sexual double standards (SDS) entail that different sexual behaviors are appropriate for men and women. This meta-analysis ( k = 99; N = 123,343) tested predictions of evolutionary and biosocial theories regarding the existence of SDS in social cognitions. Databases were searched for studies examining attitudes or stereotypes regarding the sexual behaviors of men versus women. Studies assessing differences in evaluations, or expectations, of men’s and women’s sexual behavior yielded evidence for traditional SDS ( d = 0.25). For men, frequent sexual activity was more expected, and evaluated more positively, than for women. Studies using Likert-type-scale questionnaires did not yield evidence of SDS (combined M = −0.09). Effects were moderated by level of gender equality in the country in which the study was conducted, SDS-operationalization (attitudes vs. stereotypes), questionnaire type, and sexual behavior type. Results are consistent with a hybrid model incorporating both evolutionary and sociocultural factors contributing to SDS.

Casual Sexual Relationships and Experiences

Casual sexual relationship and experiences (CSREs) are defined by sexual encounters that take place outside of formal romantic relationships. These relationships are associated with sexual identity exploration and in keeping with the fluid and flexible pathways emerging adults are taking during this transitional period. Consistent with the ambiguity emblematic of these relationships, terminology used to describe these relationships are also ambiguous and can vary by degree of commitment, investment, and emotional closeness. Sexual double standards are evident; emerging adult women are more likely to be judged negatively for participating in CSREs. Transitions from casual relationships to more exclusive relationships and their influence on future romantic relationships are not well understood. A case study of one of the 29 participants is presented and recommendations for future research are discussed.