GENDER ROLE NORM CONFORMITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION

Background. The possibility of men being perceived as sexual violence victims is constrained by stereotypical masculine gender norms, describing men as dominant and sexual opportunists, and by rape myths. These stereotypical views suggest that men cannot suffer adverse psychological consequences from sexual victimization and are less affected by it compared to women. Nevertheless, research demonstrates that men suffer psychologically from sexual victimization similar to women, and that their victimization might be associated with poorer psychological health outcomes compared to women. Additionally, scholars have argued that stereotypical gender roles and rape myths may worsen the adverse outcomes of sexual victimization. Yet, thus far, empirical research to test these hypotheses was lacking.Method. We examined the psychological consequences of sexual victimization among 696 male (n = 135) and female (n = 561) college students who self-identified as victims of sexual violence. We examined the effect of gender role norm endorsement and rape myth acceptance on the severity of self-reported psychological consequences of sexual victimization. Results. Results showed that, overall, female victims disclose psychological consequences to a greater extent than male victims. Our findings confirmed that higher endorsement of both masculine and feminine gender role norms increase the severity of psychological consequences among both men and women. Rape myth acceptance only influenced the severity of the consequences for female victims but in the opposite direction than hypothesized. Nonetheless, the odds ratio suggest that the influence of rape myth acceptance is negligible. Conclusion. With this study we point out the problematic influence gender role norms have on victims of sexual violence, particularly male victims, and the consequences they may suffer. We argue for a deconstruction of stereotypical masculine role norms in order for men to accept their victimization and talk about their experiences with others.

GENDER ROLE NORM CONFORMITY AND SEXUAL ASSAULT RISK AMONG MALE AND FEMALE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Scholars have established various risk factors that increase the risk of sexual victimization (SV) among college students. However, little research has focused on gender norm conformity as a risk factor of SV. Addressing this gap in the literature, we conducted a study with 322 men and 815 female university students. Over 51% of women and 23% of men indicated experiencing some form of SV in their lives. Logistic regression analyses revealed various gender differences and established that gender norms predict SV while controlling for established risk factors. We discuss these findings and their implications for prevention measures of SV.

Pengaruh Ideologi Maskulin Terhadap Konflik Peran Gender Pada Laki-Laki Suku Batak Karo

The purpose of this study is to measure the influence of masculine ideology on gender role conflict experienced by Karo men. The sample of this research is Karo male with 296 people with age range between 17 - 73 years and the average age is around 41.9 years. The scales used are The Male Role Norm Scale from Thompson & Pleck (1986) and The Gender Role Conflict Scale from O'Neil et al (1986). Regression test results showed that R = 0.469 and R2 = 0.220. This shows that the influence of masculine ideology on gender role conflict is 22% while the rest is influenced by other variables. This research is considered very important because the amount of research on gender role conflict in men is still limited in Indonesia but have a lot of negative impacts. Moreover, in general the tribes in Indonesia are dominated by patrilineal culture.

Zbrojni aktorzy niepaństwowi i prawa człowieka – władza bez odpowiedzialności?

Celem artykułu jest określenie statusu zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych w prawie międzynarodowym z perspektywy praw człowieka. Artykuł ten ma odpowiedzieć na pytanie czy zbrojni aktorzy niepaństwowi są związani prawami człowieka oraz jaka byłaby podstawa prawna tych obowiązków, ich zakres i konsekwencje wynikające z ich naruszenia. Teza, na której oparty jest artykuł zakłada, że zbrojni aktorzy niepaństwowi nie są związani prawami człowieka. Udowodnienie tego założenia będzie wymagać w pierwszej kolejności wskazania dlaczego zasadne jest w ogóle łączenie problematyki aktywności zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych i praw człowieka. W dalszej kolejności zostaną poczynione ogólne uwagi dotyczące statusu zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych w prawie międzynarodowym. Zasadnicza część artykułu omawia argumenty przemawiające za niezwiązaniem zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych prawami człowieka, wskazując na rolę norm adresowanych do tych aktorów, niewiążące akty prawne, jak również stosunek państw i samych zbrojnych aktorów niepaństwowych do omawianej kwestii.