Beer in Antiquity, Antiquity in Beer?

Modern breweries taking inspiration from ancient cultures appear as a quite interesting phenomenon, because beer is absent from the current imaginarium about the ancient Greeks and Romans. Yet it was not unknown to them, as demonstrated by the survey of sources in the first part of the text. Actually, some brewers today are aware of the beverage’s presence in ancient literature and use this knowledge in the naming of their products. Others decide on less direct references, to some historical or mythical characters. Some producers do not limit themselves to names of their brews, but also attempt to reconstruct the ancient drinks. In the second (main) part of the article several cases of each type are presented, together with an analysis of methods of the references’ presentation and explanation to the consumer. Also, some observations are made about the reasons why breweries decide to use ancient themes at all.

Maritime in the Literary Works during The Kaḍiri- Majapahit Period (XII –XVI Centuries)

Kerajaan-kerajaan masa Jawa Kuno dikenal sebagai negara agraris. Meskipun demikian tidak menjadikan kerajaan-kerajaan tersebut hanya bergerak di bidang pertanian saja, tetapi juga di bidang kemaritiman. Informasi yang menjelaskan kehidupan dan aktivitas kemaritiman pada masa Jawa Kuno didapatkan dari data arkeologis dan tekstual berupa prasasti, berita asing, dan naskah. Data tekstual yang dipakai sebagai sumber, umumnya dibagi ke dalam sumber primer dan sekunder. Sumber primer dianggap sebagai data yang lebih akurat dibandingkan dengan sumber sekunder, karena merupakan dokumen penting dan ditulis pada masanya. Data tekstual yang dianggap sebagai sumber primer adalah prasasti dan berita asing (tambo Dinasti Cina dan berita dari orang Eropa terutama Portugis), sedangkan yang dianggap sumber sekunder adalah naskah terutama karya sastra. Tujuan dari penulisan ini adalah mengungkapkan berbagai hal terkait aktivitas kemaritiman pada masa Jawa Kuno, terutama yang digambarkan dalam karya-karya sastra. Ternyata dalam karya sastra dari masa Kaḍiri-Majapahit banyak menuliskan tentang hal-hal yang berhubungan dengan kemaritiman, baik jenis perahu, perahu karam, bajak laut, maupun aktivitas masyarakat pesisir. Metode yang dipakai dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif analisis dengan pendekatan kualitatif. Hasil dari kajian ini memperlihatkan bahwa karya-karya sastra meskipun dianggap sebagai data sekunder, namun dari tulisan karya sastra terdapat kebenaran data yang tidak didapatkan dalam data primer. The kingdoms of the Old Javanese period were known as agrarian. However, this does not make these kingdoms only engaged in agriculture but also the maritime sector. Much information that contains maritime culture and activities during the Old Javanese period was acquired from various archaeological and textual data such as ancient inscriptions, foreign records, and texts. Textual data used as sources segmented into primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are considered more accurate than secondary sources because the primary sources record many events written at that time. Textual data that are considered primary sources are ancient inscriptions and foreign evidence such as the Chinese Dynasty tambo and European records, mostly Portuguese. Meanwhile, secondary sources such as ancient manuscripts, mainly ancient literary texts. This study aims to reveal various affairs related to maritime activities in the Old Javanese period, especially those expressed and portrayed in ancient literature. By the initial study, ancient literature from the Kaḍiri-Majapahit period contains many things related to maritime culture, both types of watercraft, shipwrecks, pirates, and the activities of the people who lived in the seacoast environment. The method used in this study is descriptive analysis with a qualitative approach. This study shows not much description of the maritime culture in Old Javanese inscriptions as the primary sources. However, it figures prominently in literary texts that contained many interesting facts. Historical information about maritime affairs in the Old Javanese period can be interpreted in more detail with supplementary information from literary texts as secondary sources.

A.F. Losev on F.M. Dostoevsky. About Losev's Activity in the Literary Section of the GAKhN

The researcher scrutinizes one peculiar historical and philosophical fact which has been generally overlooked when studying Dostoevsky. The analysis of the writer's works was carried out by the outstanding Russian philosopher Aleksei Losev at the Russian Academy of Artistic Sciences (GAKhN). The article also provides further information on Losev's work at the Academy in the 1920s. Special regard is paid to the Russian philosopher's activities in the Literary Section in 1927-1929 (in the group on Ancient Literature, in the Commission for the Study of Dostoevsky). The author provides ample evidence of the special treatment Losev paid to Dostoevsky, including numerous discussions of reports on the Russian writer's oeuvre. The article draws attention to the fact that the main focus of Losev's analysis of Dostoevsky was the writer's symbolism. It is noted that Losev turned to the study of such as early as in the 1920s. However, the philosopher managed to publish his findings much later. According to Losev, symbolic images pervade all of Dostoevsky's works. Based on the comprehensive evaluation of archival sources (recorded in the minutes of meetings, preserved at the Academy) and their comparison, the article unveils a picture of the Russian philosopher's activity and agenda. That helps us better grasp the range of his scholarly interests, significantly expands the opportunities for further research into this period of Losev's life and provides new data for the GAKhN history.

Tolkappiyam’s courtship and exogamy

The human race has gone through various transformations. It also presented impediments to sexual activity. People lived in groups and had their sexual relations inside them throughout the prehistoric period. Simultaneously, there was promiscuous intercourse. The clan was then created as a result of many external developments in society that resulted in the restriction of promiscuous relations. Because the father's identity is unknown, the descent was calculated using the mother's line. Endogamy was forbidden in clans, while exogamy was tolerated. Exogamy was unavoidable over time, and it is also the reason for the Clan's existence. Exogamy was practiced in many countries without protest, whereas endogamy was permitted in India but exogamy was condemned. It's important to figure out why this disagreement exists. First and foremost, we must investigate the following question: ‘In India, which sexual form, endogamy or exogamy, was allowed among the clan?' We can investigate it with the aid of ancient literature. Tolkappiyam, one of the earliest literary masterpieces of the Tamil race in current Indian civilization, is preserved in this fashion. In Tolkappiyam, there were two sexual forms: 'kalavu' and 'karpu.' This paper investigates the concept that the 'kalavu' referenced in Tolkappiyam may represent exogamy from the Marxist perspective through ‘Tolkappiya Poruladhigaram.

THE ROLE OF DIFFERENT MEDIA FOR THE URDHVA PATANA OF PARADA

In our ancient literature of Rasashastra, Parada or Rasa is considered the supreme Dravya out of all Rasoparasa’s, Dhatu’s etc1and described to be of divine origin. The importance of Parada is highlighted mainly for Rasachikitsa. Mercury always comes with natural impurities i.e., “Naisargika dosha”, when mercury is put to trade and commercial use it is adulterated with cheaper metals like Naga and Vanga for more commercial gains. As a result, mercury in the market is often available with this kind of adulterants, which are considered as “Yougi- ka Dosha”. Consumption of impure mercury is considered highly toxic and hazardous. It can be made into medi- cine by adopting proper Shodhana procedures. In Rasashastra process of Shodhana is having greater im- portance. Hence a wide range of purification methods is described for each metal and mineral including Parada. The literary meaning of Shodhana is purification, but in Rasashastra Shodana is a Samskara which essentially improves the potency along with detoxifying the metal or mineral. In our classics, various methods have been told for Shodhana of Parada, in which Patana plays a very important role2. All the different classical references of Urdhva Patana Samskaras are compiled and critically analysed to know their role in Shodhana of Parada. Various media told are Tamra churna, Sarja Kshara, Yava Kshara, Hingu, Panchalavana and Kaashtoaushadis such as Kumari, Nisha churna etc. An attempt is made to analyse the role of various media for the Urdhva Patana of Parada. Keywords: Parada, Shodhana, Urdhva Patana, Mercury

The Sound of Sirens: Siren Stelae in Classical Attic Cemeteries

<p>The aim of this thesis is to look at how and why the siren is featured in Classical Attic cemeteries and how its mythical characteristics lead to its appropriateness in such a context. The exact origins of the siren are unknown, although it has been suggested that they stem from the folk tales of sailors at sea, or shared ideas from other cultures. Despite such unknown variables, the siren figure that is considered in this thesis is that found in Greek mythology, frequently remembered for her encounter with Odysseus on his journey home from Troy and ability to enchant sailors with her irresistible song. Typically combining the features of a bird’s body and a woman’s head, the creature known as the siren can also be seen in ancient depictions on vases, jewellery boxes and female toilette objects. During the Classical Period (479-323BC) the bird-women hybrid sirens are used as a decorative feature on top of funerary stelae in Attic cemeteries. The siren can be seen in two different forms in the funerary context, specifically in relation to their placement and representation on stelae: relief images of the creatures in the roof sima of the upper register of the tombstone, and sculpted in the round perched on top. The presence of the siren in this context can provide a constant mourner as well as inviting the viewer to grieve for the deceased. The first chapter details the siren’s character and role in early ancient literature and art, specifically relating to their mythological corpus. Discussion will focus on the evolution of their character and their appearance over time, as well as identifying distinguishing features which make the siren a unique figure. It is also necessary in this section to establish a distinction between the siren and the mythological harpy who combines the similar bird-woman features to make up a very different creature (particularly evident in a commonly misnamed Lycian sarcophagus, the ‘Harpy tomb’.) The second chapter outlines the timeframe of the use and presence of funerary stelae featuring sirens in Attic cemeteries, predominantly found in the Kerameikos, with references to the legislation which may have affected them. This section covers examples of the presence of sirens in this context including, but not exclusive to, images in relief depicted in the roof sima, along with other figures, as well as the limited freestanding sculptures of sirens seen perched above stelae. I will also analyse the ‘traditional’ view of the sirens as ‘soul birds’ as suggested by various scholars, particularly those from the early 1900s. The final chapter looks at the appropriateness of the siren in a funerary context and attempts to identify the reasons why they were used for such a purpose. In order to answer these questions, it is important to look at the reception of these pieces by mourners and passers-by alike and the possible relationship between those that view the sculpture in such a setting and the piece itself.</p>

The Sound of Sirens: Siren Stelae in Classical Attic Cemeteries

<p>The aim of this thesis is to look at how and why the siren is featured in Classical Attic cemeteries and how its mythical characteristics lead to its appropriateness in such a context. The exact origins of the siren are unknown, although it has been suggested that they stem from the folk tales of sailors at sea, or shared ideas from other cultures. Despite such unknown variables, the siren figure that is considered in this thesis is that found in Greek mythology, frequently remembered for her encounter with Odysseus on his journey home from Troy and ability to enchant sailors with her irresistible song. Typically combining the features of a bird’s body and a woman’s head, the creature known as the siren can also be seen in ancient depictions on vases, jewellery boxes and female toilette objects. During the Classical Period (479-323BC) the bird-women hybrid sirens are used as a decorative feature on top of funerary stelae in Attic cemeteries. The siren can be seen in two different forms in the funerary context, specifically in relation to their placement and representation on stelae: relief images of the creatures in the roof sima of the upper register of the tombstone, and sculpted in the round perched on top. The presence of the siren in this context can provide a constant mourner as well as inviting the viewer to grieve for the deceased. The first chapter details the siren’s character and role in early ancient literature and art, specifically relating to their mythological corpus. Discussion will focus on the evolution of their character and their appearance over time, as well as identifying distinguishing features which make the siren a unique figure. It is also necessary in this section to establish a distinction between the siren and the mythological harpy who combines the similar bird-woman features to make up a very different creature (particularly evident in a commonly misnamed Lycian sarcophagus, the ‘Harpy tomb’.) The second chapter outlines the timeframe of the use and presence of funerary stelae featuring sirens in Attic cemeteries, predominantly found in the Kerameikos, with references to the legislation which may have affected them. This section covers examples of the presence of sirens in this context including, but not exclusive to, images in relief depicted in the roof sima, along with other figures, as well as the limited freestanding sculptures of sirens seen perched above stelae. I will also analyse the ‘traditional’ view of the sirens as ‘soul birds’ as suggested by various scholars, particularly those from the early 1900s. The final chapter looks at the appropriateness of the siren in a funerary context and attempts to identify the reasons why they were used for such a purpose. In order to answer these questions, it is important to look at the reception of these pieces by mourners and passers-by alike and the possible relationship between those that view the sculpture in such a setting and the piece itself.</p>