The common weal

This is a summary chapter, outlining the case for a common weal, based on society, the common good, solidarity, stewardship, rights, equality and a sense of common enterprise.

Radical democracy

The model of civic republicanism is associated with a range of principles: a concept of the common good, citizenship, a presumption of civic virtue and freedom. The idea of radical democracy is strongly associated with a sense of active citizenship, engagement in a political community and collective action. At times, however, it tips into populism, which claims to pit a virtuous people against a corrupt elite, but risks bringing radical democracy into disrepute.

The individual and the collective

The main individualist objection to collectivism is that group interests, and group action, are incompatible with the recognition of individual interests. The interests of individuals will always diverge from the interests of the group, and consequently groups can only subsist by repressing individual interests. The formal 'proofs' of this are questionable; people's behaviour is socialised, and people can and do collaborate for mutual benefit. Cooperation is both a means to common ends and an end in itself. Asserting the rights of individuals may lead to circumstances where majorities have to accede to minorities, but the converse may also be true: sometimes minorities have to respect the rights of majorities.

Moral collectivism

Moral collectivism is the idea that social groups can be moral agents; that they have rights and responsibilities, that groups as well as individuals can take moral action, that the morality of their actions can sensibly be assessed in those terms, and that moral responsibility cannot simply be reduced to the actions of individuals within them. This position is not opposed to individualism; it is complementary.

Substantive collectivism: collectivism in practice

Substantive collectivism is the idea that we live, not as 'individuals', but as a member of social groups, and that many of our actions are done together with others in organisations and social institutions, such as schools and businesses. Social groups are distinguished by a common identity, a network of relationships between people and a capacity for collective action. The relationships are clearest in discussions of formal organisations, but the same principles extend to informal groups, such as families, neighbourhoods and communities.

Collective values

Thinking about issues collectively changes the meaning of key values, such as liberty, equality and solidarity. Collective action is often seen as a value in itself; ideas of cooperation, social capital, solidarity and social cohesion are morally approved. The processes that lead people to act together, such as identity, reciprocity, loyalty and solidarity, are all valued in their own right. And various collective actions, such as participation in cultural life, family values and defence, are seen as desirable. These are not necessarily the values of the political left.

Community

A community is a based on networks; patterns of community include communities based on cultural identity, communities of interest and communities of place. Social policy has built on the idea of community to promote a model of solidarity where people can be integrated into the networks and included socially. The 'political community' becomes the focus both of collective action and of moral responsibility.

Methodological collectivism: social science and social policy

Methodological collectivism looks for explanations and patterns of behaviour not in the actions of individuals, but in the actions of groups - including classes, ethnic groups and societies taken as a whole. It extends beyond groups, however, to categories or blocs of people, treating them as if they can be understood in collective terms. This is the characteristic approach of sociology, but it also has an important pragmatic purpose in the development of public policy.

Government and collective action

Government is a collective organisation of a special kind: governments set the terms on which other organisations operate. The authority of government to act depends on the constitutional framework. Democratic government is conventionally associated with a set of principles - accountability, human rights and the rule of law. Contemporary governments have a wide range of roles - among them, regulation, promotion, bargaining and negotiation, and direct provision. In most societies, there is a mix of provision from different sources.

Policies for the common good

The common good has been represented as the sum of individual interests, the sum of shared interests, the common interests of members of a society, the benefit of a whole society, and a set of methods to achieve common aims. The concept depends on citizenship, a degree of equality and social inclusion; the key methods include measures to enhance voice, empowerment and engagement. The arguments for taking collective action to achieve the common good include moral positions, economic arguments, pragmatic approaches and the collective values considered in the previous chapter.