The individual and the collective

2019 ◽  
pp. 57-74
Author(s):  
Paul Spicker
Keyword(s):  
Group Action ◽  
Mutual Benefit ◽  
Formal Proofs ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Group Interests

The main individualist objection to collectivism is that group interests, and group action, are incompatible with the recognition of individual interests. The interests of individuals will always diverge from the interests of the group, and consequently groups can only subsist by repressing individual interests. The formal 'proofs' of this are questionable; people's behaviour is socialised, and people can and do collaborate for mutual benefit. Cooperation is both a means to common ends and an end in itself. Asserting the rights of individuals may lead to circumstances where majorities have to accede to minorities, but the converse may also be true: sometimes minorities have to respect the rights of majorities.

The Politics of Individual and Group Difference in Canadian Jurisprudence

1994 ◽  
Vol 27 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-21 ◽  
Author(s):  
Avigail Eisenberg
Keyword(s):  
Collective Rights ◽  
The Difference ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Group Interests

AbstractConstitutional commentators who interpret conflicts between individuals and communities in terms of a struggle between individual and collective rights do not accurately capture the jurisprudence developed in the courts regarding such conflicts. Such conflicts are more clearly analyzed when they are framed in terms of identity-related differences. The difference perspective has three advantages over the “individual versus collective rights” perspective. First, the difference perspective accurately retrieves the courts' reasoning by framing it in terms of the values actually at stake. Second, it avoids the traditional dichotomy between individual and collective rights. Third, it provides a means to compare claims of individuals and groups without reducing group interests to individual interests.

scholarly journals COLLECTIVE OBLIGATIONS, GROUP PLANS AND INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS

2016 ◽  
Vol 33 (2) ◽  
pp. 187-214 ◽  
Author(s):  
Allard Tamminga ◽  
Hein Duijf
Keyword(s):  
Group Action ◽  
Joint Action ◽  
Strong Sense ◽  
The Public ◽  
Group Design ◽  
Group Members ◽  
Individual Actions ◽  
The Individual

Abstract:If group members aim to fulfil a collective obligation, they must act in such a way that the composition of their individual actions amounts to a group action that fulfils the collective obligation. We study a strong sense of joint action in which the members of a group design and then publicly adopt a group plan that coordinates the individual actions of the group members. We characterize the conditions under which a group plan successfully coordinates the group members’ individual actions, and study how the public adoption of a plan changes the context in which individual agents make a decision about what to do.

scholarly journals The Evolution of Social Contracts

2020 ◽  
Vol 5 (2) ◽  
pp. 181-203 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael Vlerick
Keyword(s):  
Nash Equilibrium ◽  
Social Interaction ◽  
Group Dynamics ◽  
Coordination Problems ◽  
Social Contracts ◽  
Game Theoretic ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Naturalistic Account ◽  
Central Claim ◽  
Group Interests

AbstractInfluential thinkers such as Young, Sugden, Binmore, and Skyrms have developed game-theoretic accounts of the emergence, persistence and evolution of social contracts. Social contracts are sets of commonly understood rules that govern cooperative social interaction within societies. These naturalistic accounts provide us with valuable and important insights into the foundations of human societies. However, current naturalistic theories focus mainly on how social contracts solve coordination problems in which the interests of the individual participants are (relatively) aligned, not competition problems in which individual interests compete with group interests (and in which there are no group beneficial Nash equilibrium available). In response, I set out to build on those theories and provide a (more) comprehensive naturalistic account of the emergence, persistence and evolution of social contracts. My central claim is that social contracts have culturally evolved to solve cooperation problems, which include both coordination and competition problems. I argue that solutions to coordination problems (which I spell out) emerge from “within-group” dynamics, while solutions to competition problems (which I also spell out) result largely from “between-group” dynamics.

Scientific Management of the Public Business

1915 ◽  
Vol 9 (3) ◽  
pp. 488-495 ◽  
Author(s):  
Morris L. Cooke
Keyword(s):  
Group Action ◽  
Federal State ◽  
Scientific Management ◽  
Business Organization ◽  
Private Business ◽  
Municipal Service ◽  
The Public ◽  
Special Privilege ◽  
The Individual ◽  
And Control

The evolution of business organization is from the unsystematized through the systematized to the scientific. Governmental work—federal, state and municipal—is still almost exclusively in the unsystematized stage.Among the causes of municipal inefficiency are the attempt to hamper and control the action of individuals by a multiplicity of petty restrictions unknown in private business, and the separation of the municipal service into scores of divisions with little or no mutuality of interest. Both of these practices tend to prevent group action in the large sense. But undoubtedly the greatest bar to efficiency is the unwillingness to trust the individual as shown by the attempt to thwart evil or selfish designs of the official by board control. This committee management is in my opinion, the most costly hallucination of democracy. As a present day cause of expensive and inefficient government, this bulwark of the stand patter, of special privilege, of the politician and of the crook makes other influences tending in the same direction such as the complacency of civil service and the lack of definite standards, seem almost negligible.

scholarly journals A Formal Framework of Software Product Line Analyses

2021 ◽  
Vol 30 (3) ◽  
pp. 1-37
Author(s):  
Thiago Castro ◽  
Leopoldo Teixeira ◽  
Vander Alves ◽  
Sven Apel ◽  
Maxime Cordy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Product Line ◽  
Formal Proofs ◽  
Product Lines ◽  
Functional Program ◽  
Type Checking ◽  
Formal Framework ◽  
Software Product ◽  
Feature Based ◽  
Family Based ◽  
The Individual

A number of product-line analysis approaches lift analyses such as type checking, model checking, and theorem proving from the level of single programs to the level of product lines. These approaches share concepts and mechanisms that suggest an unexplored potential for reuse of key analysis steps and properties, implementation, and verification efforts. Despite the availability of taxonomies synthesizing such approaches, there still remains the underlying problem of not being able to describe product-line analyses and their properties precisely and uniformly. We propose a formal framework that models product-line analyses in a compositional manner, providing an overall understanding of the space of family-based, feature-based, and product-based analysis strategies. It defines precisely how the different types of product-line analyses compose and inter-relate. To ensure soundness, we formalize the framework, providing mechanized specification and proofs of key concepts and properties of the individual analyses. The formalization provides unambiguous definitions of domain terminology and assumptions as well as solid evidence of key properties based on rigorous formal proofs. To qualitatively assess the generality of the framework, we discuss to what extent it describes five representative product-line analyses targeting the following properties: safety, performance, dataflow facts, security, and functional program properties.

scholarly journals Basic Elements of Sponsorship Contract in Sport

2018 ◽  
Vol 55 (2) ◽  
pp. 275-287
Author(s):  
Tone Jagodic ◽  
Zlatko Mateša
Keyword(s):  
National Level ◽  
Mutual Benefit ◽  
Sports Organizations ◽  
Proper Definition ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Many ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Many Sources ◽  
The Right

Sponsorship represents very important source of finances for many sports organizations. The aim of the article is to analyze structural elements of sponsorship contract and to propose a proper definition of a sponsorship contract, while leaning on the many sources of comparative law. The review of foreign legislation shows that not one country has yet legally enacted the sponsorship contract. Some legislation regulate sponsorship in an indirect way using common rules of contractual law or some elements of other contracts, which are already well known and regulated by legal systems. In determining the validity of the arguments cited by the individual authors in the literature our aim is to come to some conclusions which have been summarized in following parts of this article. It seems that the Code of sponsorship of the International Chambers of Commerce (ICC) gives the real foundation which can be useful for different sport organizations. Following the ICC International Code on Sponsorship, the definition of a sponsorship agreement “is any commercial agreement by which a sponsor, for the mutual benefit of the sponsor and a sponsored party, contractually provides financing or other support in order to establish an association between the sponsor’s image, brands or products and a sponsorship property in return for the rights to promote this association and/or for the granting of certain agreed direct or indirect benefits.” Brand of the sponsor, identification with the property of the sponsored subject, commercial agreement, right to promote and mutual benefit are the vital components of a sponsorship contract which are contained in the ICC definition. We also believe that in the future, this definition could lead to the right definition for a possible codification of a sponsorship contract on the national level. At the same time it is important to mention the special characteristic of the specific value of the sponsored subject contained in a sponsorship contract. From the angle of the sponsor this value can be compared with a special and characteristic element of the sponsored subject which brings to the sponsor a very precious value /”pretium affectionis”/ and is consequently extremely important in a rational economic decision of a sponsor to sign a sponsorship contract. Taking into account that all these elements represent the “causa” of a sponsorship contract the position of the sponsor could be defined as the tendency to identify with the value of the sponsored party, with the aim to further manifest itself by promoting these links, both of which lead to the goal of a sponsor to raise or improve its image in public or in a society. The essential challenge of the sponsor is to manage to change the opportunity into the advantage given in the contract relationship. Opportunities should be taken from the challenges which are given to the sponsor and this represents the original motive of the sponsor to sign a sponsorship contract.

The Ultrastructure of Monkey Gingival Epithelium

1967 ◽  
Vol 25 ◽  
pp. 16-17
Author(s):  
C.N. Sun
Keyword(s):  
Epithelial Cells ◽  
Macaca Nemestrina ◽  
Stratum Granulosum ◽  
Solution Ph ◽  
Gingival Epithelial Cells ◽  
Stratum Spinosum ◽  
Cell Layers ◽  
Gingival Epithelium ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Different Thickness

The present study demonstrates the ultrastructure of the gingival epithelium of the pig tail monkey (Macaca nemestrina). Specimens were taken from lingual and facial gingival surfaces and fixed in Dalton's chrome osmium solution (pH 7.6) for 1 hr, dehydrated, and then embedded in Epon 812.Tonofibrils are variable in number and structure according to the different region or location of the gingival epithelial cells, the main orientation of which is parallel to the long axis of the cells. The cytoplasm of the basal epithelial cells contains a great number of tonofilaments and numerous mitochondria. The basement membrane is 300 to 400 A thick. In the cells of stratum spinosum, the tonofibrils are densely packed and increased in number (fig. 1 and 3). They seem to take on a somewhat concentric arrangement around the nucleus. The filaments may occur scattered as thin fibrils in the cytoplasm or they may be arranged in bundles of different thickness. The filaments have a diameter about 50 A. In the stratum granulosum, the cells gradually become flatted, the tonofibrils are usually thin, and the individual tonofilaments are clearly distinguishable (fig. 2). The mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum are seldom seen in these superficial cell layers.

A Study of the Ultrastructure of Visual Cell Outer Segment Membranes, Using a Water-Miscible Embedding Medium and Differential Staining

1972 ◽  
Vol 30 ◽  
pp. 50-51
Author(s):  
Anthony J. Godfrey
Keyword(s):  
Outer Segment ◽  
Protein Denaturation ◽  
Uranyl Acetate ◽  
Differential Staining ◽  
Visual Cell ◽  
Lead Citrate ◽  
Chick Retina ◽  
Dark Staining ◽  
Embedding Medium ◽  
The Individual

Aldehyde-fixed chick retina was embedded in a water-containing resin of glutaraldehyde and urea, without dehydration. The loss of lipids and other soluble tissue components, which is severe in routine methods involving dehydration, was thereby minimized. Osmium tetroxide post-fixation was not used, lessening the amount of protein denaturation which occurred. Ultrathin sections were stained with 1, uranyl acetate and lead citrate, 2, silicotungstic acid, or 3, osmium vapor, prior to electron microscope examination of visual cell outer segment ultrastructure, at magnifications up to 800,000.Sections stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate (Fig. 1) showed that the individual disc membranes consisted of a central lipid core about 78Å thick in which dark-staining 40Å masses appeared to be embedded from either side.

The Red Neuronal Pigment in the Nervous System of the Mussel, Mytilus Edulis: Localization and Its Effect on Lateral Ciliary Activity with Spectral and Analytical Changes

1981 ◽  
Vol 39 ◽  
pp. 494-495
Author(s):  
Anthony A. Paparo ◽  
Judith A. Murphy
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Mytilus Edulis ◽  
Neuronal Cell ◽  
Ciliary Activity ◽  
Neuronal Cell Bodies ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Intracellular Organelles ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Cryostat Sections

The purpose of this study was to localize the red neuronal pigment in Mytilus edulis and examine its role in the control of lateral ciliary activity in the gill. The visceral ganglia (Vg) in the central nervous system show an over al red pigmentation. Most red pigments examined in squash preps and cryostat sec tions were localized in the neuronal cell bodies and proximal axon regions. Unstained cryostat sections showed highly localized patches of this pigment scattered throughout the cells in the form of dense granular masses about 5-7 um in diameter, with the individual granules ranging from 0.6-1.3 um in diame ter. Tissue stained with Gomori's method for Fe showed bright blue granular masses of about the same size and structure as previously seen in unstained cryostat sections.Thick section microanalysis (Fig.l) confirmed both the localization and presence of Fe in the nerve cell. These nerve cells of the Vg share with other pigmented photosensitive cells the common cytostructural feature of localization of absorbing molecules in intracellular organelles where they are tightly ordered in fine substructures.

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