Transformation at the Edges of Empire

During the seventh century in the Caucasus, Armenia and Georgia witnessed a remarkable period of architectural production and creativity. The Ṭur ‘Abdin witnessed a flourishing at the same time, while architecture in other areas, such as Cyprus, Egypt, and Nubia, developed in relative isolation. With the emergence of Islam in the Near East, by the end of the seventh century, new architectural forms were developed to serve the new religion, dependent on the earlier Byzantine tradition and probably executed by Byzantine artisans.

The Basilica Transformed

A unique achievement in the history of architecture and the major monument of Byzantine architecture requires detailed analysis to understand its historical context, planning principles, structural systems, aesthetics, and symbolism. The Great Church was designed quickly—as some unresolved design features and structural flaws reveal—but it was intended to be unique in form and scale, meant to symbolize the dominion of the emperor Justinian, as his army reconquered lost territories in the East and West and in North Africa.

Innovative Architecture

Several new architectural trends emerged in the fifth and sixth centuries: (1) the development of skeletal structural systems in Late Roman architecture that transform wall support into point support; (2) the juxtaposition of longitudinal and centralized plans in church architecture; and (3) an increased interest in geometry and measurement in architectural design. The innovative developments signaled by Hagia Sophia mark a creative shift from Rome and Italy (where architecture would remain conservative after the sixth century) to Constantinople and the East.

Regional Developments, East and West

Despite the continuation of pan-Mediterranean commerce through the fifth century and contacts brought about by imperial patronage and pilgrimage, distinctive styles quickly emerged in the different regions of the empire. This chapter contrasts architectural and urban developments at the heart of the Byzantine Empire with those in Italy (Rome, Milan, and Ravenna) and in the eastern provinces: Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Asia Minor.

Ritual Settings II

How did the church building become sacred space? This chapter examines the second model: sanctity as represented by the presence of relics or the tombs of martyrs and saints. The popularity of the refrigerium in the fourth century provides ample testimony to the attraction of the tombs of saints and martyrs to the early church. And although the official celebrations ad sanctos were terminated by the end of the century, the cult of saints continued, finding an outlet in the practice of pilgrimage and the veneration of relics. While both were accepted customs, neither was officially sanctioned by the church. They may be best understood as manifestations of popular piety or of private devotion, satisfying the spiritual needs of the individual.

A Tale of Two Cities

As Constantine’s interests shifted eastward following his defeat of Licinius in 324 CE, he invested heavily in two cities. On the one hand, Constantinople, ancient Byzantion, was a city without a significant history that needed to resonate as the capital of an empire. Jerusalem, on the other hand, was a city with too much history, but without a visible Christian presence. Both cities were desperately in need of makeovers to situate them politically, religiously, and ideologically at the heart of Constantine’s evolving concept of empire.

Palaiologan Constantinople and a New Architectural Idiom

Following the reconquest of Constantinople in 1261, the city experienced a brief cultural revival, marked by significant works of restoration and new construction to reconnect the city to its past glory. Older monastic establishments were expanded, often with large chapels for the privileged burials of the aristocracy. The new architectural style of the period is best represented by the Church of Christ in the Chora Monastery, the best preserved project of the period, characterized by small-scale relationships in its design, picturesque asymmetries, and the lack of a clear relationship between the exterior forms and the interior spaces.

Development of Regional Styles II

The masonry architecture of Anatolia is less well preserved than that of Greece, but an analysis of the surviving buildings indicates an interaction between Constantinople and the local centers, evident in the construction techniques and decorative details. In central and eastern Anatolia, contact with Caucasian is evident. Better evidence of Byzantine daily life is provided by the rock-carved settlements in the rough volcanic highland of Cappadocia. Although they appear to replicate masonry forms, the inventiveness of the Cappadocian artisan is often evident in the willful deviations from a masonry prototype.

Development of Regional Styles I

Certain features in Byzantine church design are universal, such as the centralized, domed plan and the three-part sanctuary. While plans may have been imported from major centers, construction was local: under normal circumstances, masons did not travel. Thus, regional workshops developed distinctive techniques and styles. The architecture of the so-called Helladic School of the south (primarily Athens and the Peloponnese) contrasts with northern developments in the area of Thessalonike and Macedonia. At the same time, traveling masons from Constantinople seem to have been at work at several sites, such as Ferai, Veljusa, and Nea Mone.

Justinian’s Building Program and Sixth-Century Developments

Described in detail by Justinian’s court historian Procopius, Justinian’s building program focused on the center (Constantinople) and the periphery (the limes). Within church architecture, the dome appears as an experimental element structurally, formally, and symbolically. At the same time, traditional architectural forms continue. At the margins of the empire, Justinian’s program of fortification was coupled with spiritual outposts—churches and pilgrimage sites—to spread the message of Orthodox Christianity.