Companion animals

Companion animals (or pets) form a distinctive category of domestic animals defined by their primary use as nonhuman social support providers. Companion animals have an ancient history that may precede and anticipate the original domestication of animals. Currently, more than 60% of European and American households keep pets, and their numbers are increasing rapidly in several emerging economies. The results of research over the past four decades suggest that relationships with companion animals may be beneficial to human health and well-being, though the extent of the benefits will likely depend on relationship quality. Exposure to positive relationships with pets in childhood may also predispose people to develop more empathic responses to animals later in life. In spite of these benefits, pet ownership also imposes costs, particularly in terms of environmental damage, risk to public health and threat to animal welfare. The future of these exceptional human–animal relationships will depend on striking a positive balance between the benefits and the costs.

Introduction

Many animals’ lives, both in the wild and in captivity, are now greatly influenced by human activities. As a result there are many opportunities for human–animal interactions (HAIs), leading to the establishment of human–animal relationships (HARs). In some cases these can result in strong emotional attachments, human–animal bonds (HABs). The study of these constitutes the subject of Anthrozoology. In this chapter we attempt to define these terms in a way that is applicable across all of the different contexts in which humans and animals come into contact. These relationships can have far-reaching consequences, not only for the individual animals and people involved in the interactions, but also for animal populations and human society more generally, so there are many reasons why we should care and be concerned with them. This chapter introduces some of these areas of concern and their relevance to the different contexts, which are explored in subsequent chapters.

Human–animal relationships in the urban wild

As our planet continues to urbanise, an increasing abundance and diversity of wildlife find ways to persist within cities and towns. I summarise general patterns of urban wildlife and also describe common interactions between people and wildlife in cities. Some of these encounters are very harmful, including property damage, transmission of disease, or attacks against humans or their pets. However, urban wildlife also have positive impacts on cities and urban residents, by providing ecosystem services such as pest control, and by inspiring a feeling of connection with nature. I discuss the implications of human attitudes for long-term coexistence between people and animals in cities, and point to areas for future research. As the biodiversity crisis continues to worsen, and as the planet continues to be modified by humans at an unprecedented rate, it is imperative that we make a place for wildlife within and near to our cities.

Zoo animals

With the number of zoos increasing worldwide, there are now growing opportunities for human–animal interactions (HAIs) in zoos. HAIs occur throughout the day, every day, with variations in their duration, quality and dyadic components (familiar or unfamiliar humans). Research has shown that HAIs can affect the development of positive, negative and neutral human–animal relationships (HARs), which in turn can have short- and long-term implications on the animals’ behaviour, physiology and welfare. For example, positive HAIs can lead to positive HARs between specific keeper–animal dyads, and in some cases can lead to positive association of visitors. This area of research is still in its infancy yet deemed to be one of the most influential aspects of zoo animal welfare science. This chapter highlights current trends in HAR research and areas for future developments for both familiar and unfamiliar humans and the animals that they encounter in various contexts.

Agricultural animals

Farm animals have had a crucial role in human development and have been of high importance until now in many diverse farming systems. For the future, animal production poses substantial opportunities as well as risks, regarding both food security of the growing human population, as well as climate effects, depending largely on the farming system. Human–animal interactions inevitably occur throughout the lives of farm animals. However, the frequency and types of interactions are extremely variable, both between and within husbandry systems. This chapter reviews the variation in interactions and relationships, the causes for these differences and the implications for animal and human welfare. It shows evidence not only for the direct effects of the stockpersons’ relationship towards the animals in interactions and thus animal welfare, but also for the indirect effects via decision making. Lastly, societal implications and future research areas are discussed.

The importance of HAIs, HARs and HABs

There are many commonalities in human–animal interactions (HAIs) and human–animal relationships (HARs), which enable us to build a framework to better understand them. Thinking about HAIs and HARs collectively also enables us to consider the costs and benefits of them to both humans and animals, and society more widely. On balance, positive HAIs and HARs are ideal, so should be supported and promoted within our society. But how can we do this? This chapter explores the importance of HAIs, HARs and HABs for us all, and considers how they might be developed, maintained and appreciated.

Wild animals and tourists

Tourists encounter wild animals both intentionally, in wildlife tourism; and incidentally, in adventure tourism. Some wildlife tour products, enterprises and destinations focus on icon species, others on diversity. Icon species may be large and magnificent, or small and cute. Many birdwatchers, and some diving tourists, maintain lifetime lists of species seen. Individual tourist interests depend strongly on cultural background and prior experience. Tourism creates ecological impacts on wildlife, but in some circumstances may also contribute to conservation. In some circumstances, tourists face physical risks during interactions with wild animals. More generally, tourists viewing or interacting with wild animals experience lasting social and psychological gains.

Human–animal interactions in the research environment

Animal care in biomedical facilities has undergone major changes in the past few decades, including having dedicated and highly trained caretakers to oversee the physiological and psychological well-being of the animals in their charge. An important outcome of this high quality animal care is the close relationship that can develop between the caretaker and the animal. Once discouraged and considered a potential threat to scientific objectivity, such positive interactions are now encouraged by many facilities. This chapter summarises the current use of animals in scientific research, and the types of human–animal interactions that are typically found in the research environment. It then examines effects of such interactions and relationships on both the animal and the caretaker. Lastly, suggestions for facilitating positive interactions while reducing the potential costs, as well as directions for future research are provided.