IMPACT OF THE INVASIVE CUSCUTA CAMPESTRIS ON VEGETATIVE COVER AND PLANT BIODIVERSITY IN HOMA- BAY COUNTY

Purpose: This research paper focused on the impact of Cuscuta campestris on vegetative cover and plant biodiversity in Homa-Bay County. The specific objective was to investigate the impact on plant growth and development with indicator as photosynthetic capacity of preferred host plants and chlorophyll content and leaf weight as the parameters. Methodology: The study was conducted in hot-spot areas of invasion, Rachuonyo North, Homa Bay town and Suba North using Completely Randomized Experimental Block Design. The data was collected through field observation and laboratory analysis. The study used descriptive and correlation data analysis procedures to show the impact on photosynthetic capacity, ANOVA to determine statistical significant difference among the obtained results for each parameter of the infected and uninfected samples. Variance analysis were conducted using SPSS 20 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY, USA) and differences between means tested by ANOVA. Values of P ≤ 0.05 were considered significantly different. Findings: The results showed that the invasion was more intense in Theveta peruvinia and Euphorbia tirucalli species. Mean leaf amounts of chlorophyll were observed to decline with chlorophyll a from 3.97 to 1.59 mg/g and chlorophyll b from 2.65 to 1.18 mg/g and total chlorophyll value from 6.62 to 2.76 mg/g on infection resulting to reduced photosynthetic efficiency and low organic material formation. Leaf wet and dry weight significantly decreased in both infected varieties. The mean wet weight of 17.61g in infected was significantly different, F (1, 4) = 235.74, p< .05, from the mean wet weight of 24.23g in the uninfected Yellow Oleander while the mean dry weight of 5.55g in infected was significantly different, F (1, 4) = 159.72, p< .05, from mean dry weight of 7.87g in uninfected Yellow Oleander. Similarly, significant difference, F (1, 4) = 714.64, p< .05, was observed in Calliandra calothyrsus variety. These demonstrated how C. campestris is detrimental causing ecological impacts with direct effects on plant biodiversity by reducing growth and development of infected host plant and even leading to death. Unique Contributions to Theory, Practice and Policy: The paper recommends intense sensitization of the community on the impacts of dodder from the findings for an enhanced understanding and need for management and control. The findings to be disseminated through workshops involving farmers, NGOs and community based organisations, academic conferences and publications to help create awareness on the impacts and mobilize the entire public on management and possible total eradication. Further research to investigate on nutrients of attraction in the preferred host plants with an aim of permanent solution for total eradication in order to restore the vegetative cover and plant biodiversity.

EFFECTS OF PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY ON NODULATION AND NITROGEN UPTAKE BY THREE LEGUME CROPS IN TWO GHANAIAN SOILS

Purpose: A greenhouse study of Soybean, Cowpea and Pigeon Pea was made at University of Ghana, to determine the effects of phosphorus availability on nodulation and nitrogen uptake by the afore mentioned legumes in two Ghanaian soils, Adenta and Nzema series. Methodology: Three P rates of 0mg, 50mg and 100mg P of TSP and TPR were applied to a kilogram of soil per pot in two soil series. The pots were arranged using Randomized Complete Block Design. GenstatR was used to do the statistical analysis. Findings: The results from this study showed that with or without Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) or Togo Phosphate Rock (TPR), soybean did not form nodules in the Nzema soil but nodulated with TSP application in the Adenta soil. The absence of nodulation even with high P from TSP by soybean in Nzema soil is surprising but the observation in the Nzema soil may be attributed to the absence of soybean Rhizobium cells or insignificant numbers of these rhizobia. The results of the present data indicated that treatments with higher P application gave higher N uptake and showed the link among P application, high nodule dry weight, and N uptake. The improvement in the dry matter yield of pigeon pea and cowpea on Adenta soil and soybean on the Nzema soil at TPR50 and TPR100 show the importance of P application to dry matter yield of legumes. Significant difference that was shown by cowpea on Nzema soil could be attributed to the ability of the crop to desorp P from sparingly available P sources through exudation of high amounts of organic acid anions, mainly citrate. Unique contributions to theory, practice and policy: In the soil, Rhizobium species must recognize their specific host before nodulation may take place and the absence of the appropriate Rhizobium species with the introduction of a legume into a given soil may result in no or poor nodulation. Low P availability is a challenge for crop species to nodulate since the rhizobia responsible for nitrogen fixation have a high P requirement. The toxicity of Aluminum to rhizobia may be due to inhibition of DNA replication because of binding of Aluminum to DNA. One factor that could have accounted for the better nodulation in soil is the higher acidity. The optimum pH for effective rhizobia growth in soils is between pH 6 and 7.

EFFECTS OF PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY ON NODULATION AND NITROGEN UPTAKE BY THREE LEGUME CROPS IN TWO GHANAIAN SOILS

Purpose: A greenhouse study of Soybean, Cowpea and Pigeon Pea was made at University of Ghana, to determine the effects of phosphorus availability on nodulation and nitrogen uptake by the afore mentioned legumes in two Ghanaian soils, Adenta and Nzema series. Methodology: Three P rates of 0mg, 50mg and 100mg P of TSP and TPR were applied to a kilogram of soil per pot in two soil series. The pots were arranged using Randomized Complete Block Design. GenstatR was used to do the statistical analysis. Findings: The results from this study showed that with or without Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) or Togo Phosphate Rock (TPR), soybean did not form nodules in the Nzema soil but nodulated with TSP application in the Adenta soil. The absence of nodulation even with high P from TSP by soybean in Nzema soil is surprising but the observation in the Nzema soil may be attributed to the absence of soybean Rhizobium cells or insignificant numbers of these rhizobia. The improvement in the dry matter yield of pigeon pea and cowpea on Adenta soil and soybean on the Nzema soil at TPR50 and TPR100 show the importance of P application to dry matter yield of legumes. Significant difference that was shown by cowpea on Nzema soil could be attributed to the ability of the crop to desorp P from sparingly available P sources through exudation of high amounts of organic acid anions, mainly citrate. Unique contributions to theory, practice and policy: In the soil, Rhizobium species must recognize their specific host before nodulation may take place and the absence of the appropriate Rhizobium species with the introduction of a legume into a given soil may result in no or poor nodulation. Low P availability is a challenge for crop species to nodulate since the rhizobia responsible for nitrogen fixation have a high P requirement. The toxicity of Aluminum to rhizobia may be due to inhibition of DNA replication because of binding of Aluminum to DNA. One factor that could have accounted for the better nodulation in soil is the higher acidity. The optimum pH for effective rhizobia growth in soils is between pH 6 and 7.

EFFECTS OF PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY ON NODULATION AND NITROGEN UPTAKE BY THREE LEGUME CROPS IN TWO GHANAIAN SOILS

Purpose: A greenhouse study of Soybean, Cowpea and Pigeon Pea was made at University of Ghana, to determine the effects of phosphorus availability on nodulation and nitrogen uptake by the afore mentioned legumes in two Ghanaian soils, Adenta and Nzema series. Methodology: Three P rates of 0mg, 50mg and 100mg P of TSP and TPR were applied to a kilogram of soil per pot in two soil series. The pots were arranged using Randomized Complete Block Design. GenstatR was used to do the statistical analysis. Findings: The results from this study showed that with or without Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) or Togo Phosphate Rock (TPR), soybean did not form nodules in the Nzema soil but nodulated with TSP application in the Adenta soil. The absence of nodulation even with high P from TSP by soybean in Nzema soil is surprising but the observation in the Nzema soil may be attributed to the absence of soybean Rhizobium cells or insignificant numbers of these rhizobia. The improvement in the dry matter yield of pigeon pea and cowpea on Adenta soil and soybean on the Nzema soil at TPR50 and TPR100 show the importance of P application to dry matter yield of legumes. Significant difference that was shown by cowpea on Nzema soil could be attributed to the ability of the crop to desorp P from sparingly available P sources through exudation of high amounts of organic acid anions, mainly citrate. Unique contributions to theory, practice and policy: In the soil, Rhizobium species must recognize their specific host before nodulation may take place and the absence of the appropriate Rhizobium species with the introduction of a legume into a given soil may result in no or poor nodulation. Low P availability is a challenge for crop species to nodulate since the rhizobia responsible for nitrogen fixation have a high P requirement. The toxicity of Aluminum to rhizobia may be due to inhibition of DNA replication because of binding of Aluminum to DNA. One factor that could have accounted for the better nodulation in soil is the higher acidity. The optimum pH for effective rhizobia growth in soils is between pH 6 and 7.

EFFECTS OF PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY ON NODULATION AND NITROGEN UPTAKE BY THREE LEGUME CROPS IN TWO GHANAIAN SOILS

Purpose: A greenhouse study of Soybean, Cowpea and Pigeon Pea was made at University of Ghana, to determine the effects of phosphorus availability on nodulation and nitrogen uptake by the afore mentioned legumes in two Ghanaian soils, Adenta and Nzema series. Methodology: Three P rates of 0mg, 50mg and 100mg P of TSP and TPR were applied to a kilogram of soil per pot in two soil series. The pots were arranged using Randomized Complete Block Design. GenstatR was used to do the statistical analysis. Findings: The results from this study showed that with or without Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) or Togo Phosphate Rock (TPR), soybean did not form nodules in the Nzema soil but nodulated with TSP application in the Adenta soil. The absence of nodulation even with high P from TSP by soybean in Nzema soil is surprising but the observation in the Nzema soil may be attributed to the absence of soybean Rhizobium cells or insignificant numbers of these rhizobia. The improvement in the dry matter yield of pigeon pea and cowpea on Adenta soil and soybean on the Nzema soil at TPR50 and TPR100 show the importance of P application to dry matter yield of legumes. Significant difference that was shown by cowpea on Nzema soil could be attributed to the ability of the crop to desorp P from sparingly available P sources through exudation of high amounts of organic acid anions, mainly citrate. Unique contributions to theory, practice and policy: In the soil, Rhizobium species must recognize their specific host before nodulation may take place and the absence of the appropriate Rhizobium species with the introduction of a legume into a given soil may result in no or poor nodulation. Low P availability is a challenge for crop species to nodulate since the rhizobia responsible for nitrogen fixation have a high P requirement. The toxicity of Aluminum to rhizobia may be due to inhibition of DNA replication because of binding of Aluminum to DNA. One factor that could have accounted for the better nodulation in soil is the higher acidity. The optimum pH for effective rhizobia growth in soils is between pH 6 and 7

AN EVALUATION OF THE FACTORS INFLUENCING VEGETABLE COMMERCIALIZATION IN KENYA

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to establish factors that influence vegetable commercialization among smallholder farmers of fresh vegetables in Kenya. The present study defined commercialization against farmer characteristics including portion of land committed to vegetable farming, share of household income generated from it, and the producers’ perception that the vegetables they consumed at the farm were produced or procured without any substantial cost. Methodology: The researcher adopted a cross-sectional survey design to randomly recruit a sample of crop farmers (n=118) from Kirinyaga and Kiambu counties in Kenya. Data on agrochemical use, crop diversity and scale as well as logistical issues regarding proximity to markets and social status of the crop farmers were collected using a researcher-administered questionnaire in a one-on-one interview. These data were initially entered on MS Excel spread sheets for cleaning and later transferred to Minitab (Ver 12) for statistical analyses. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to isolate crucial commercialization factors responsible for varying agrochemical use behaviours among crop farmers and later presented in scree plots. Results/Findings: The study revealed that commercialization of tomatoes and kale was real in different areas of study which was influenced by structural and socio-demographic factors. From the study findings, structural policies to promote horticulture and high value crop production had a positive impact on production of vegetables while wildlife conservation and livestock development resulted to human-wildlife conflicts due to agrochemical abuse. Various socio-demographic factors that influence commercialization of vegetables included: household size, farm size, proportion of land used for vegetable production and household income. It emerged that household size (Eigen value EV=3.63), income (EV=2.61) and farm size (EV=1.27) accounted for 68.4% of variability in agrochemical abuse. This finding also explains their marginalization from county government extension services and high costs of market access. Unique contribution to theories, practice and policy: The study finds that vegetable farmers’ perception of commercialization leaned more towards increasing production in response to consumer demand and not necessarily to raise household food supplies. Famers dedicated over two thirds (66.67%) of their land to vegetable farming to support their livelihood (97.1%, SE= 1.30). Commercialization of vegetable farming was influenced by the level of education (SE=3.68). The study found out that that access to ICT equipment, particularly mobile phones, were the prime means via which farming techniques and agribusiness practices were learnt or improved (V= 0.196 Pearson, p=0.11).

IMPACT OF ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE ON NET RETURNS IN SMALLHOLDER PIGEON PEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SEMI-ARID KENYA

Purpose: Improved pigeon pea varieties were promoted in semi-arid areas of Kenya to improve smallholder pigeon pea production systems resilience to climate change. However, the impact of adoption is unknown. This study was carried out to evaluate the impact of adoption on farming households’ net farm returns in semi-arid South Eastern Kenya in the context of adaptation to climate change. The objectives were to (i)describe farmer’s perceptions on production of improved varieties of pigeon peas as an adaptation strategy to climate change, (ii) evaluate the impact of the adoption on household’s net returns. Propensity score matching approach was used to assess the impact of the adoption. Methodology: The study used cross sectional data gathered through household survey to evaluate the impact of adoption on farming households’ net farm returns in semi-arid South Eastern Kenya in the context of adaptation to climate change.. The study was conducted in semi-arid zones of Machakos County in South Eastern Kenya (SEK) namely Masinga, Mavoko and Mwala Wards. The areas were purposively selected for semi-arid semi-arid climatic conditions and dominant pigeon pea production.The study adopts the counterfactual approach and propensity score matching method to evaluate the impact of adopting improved pigeon peas on household net farm income. Data was analyzed using STATA 13.0 statistical package. Findings: The results showed that 33 percent of the sampled households had adopted production of improved pigeon peas and they perceived adoption of the technology as an adaptation strategy to climate change viewed through tolerance to drought, pest and diseases, increased crop yield and shortened crop growth period. Improved pigeon peas significantly increased farmers’ net income, the adopter got a net farm income of KES 30,710 per acre per year that was KES 18, 631 more than non-adopting households. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends that County Governments facilitate farmers to produce pigeon pea seeds through improved access to seed and linkage to reliable market for their farm produce to increase their farm income.

ENHANCING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE IN THE DAIRY INDUSTRY: SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT APPROACH

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to explore the effects of supply chain management practices on the organizational performance underpinned on resource-based view theory (RBV). Methodology: The study adopts descriptive and explanatory research design with purposive sampling and quantitative methods to collect primary data through crossed ended questionnaires from 109 dairy co-operatives in Kenya. Data collected was organized and cleaned using both excel and statistical package for social scientist (SPSS). Additionally, partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) techniques were used to analyze data in SmartPLS version 3.2 software, and the results for both descriptive and inferential were presented in tables. Results: The result revealed that SCMPs has a positive and significant impact on Market performance (β=0.558), operational performance (β=0.371) and customer satisfaction (β=0.543). These results reveal that SCM practices are associated with high levels of organizational performance. Thus, SCM practices explain and predict the organizational performance of the dairy industry in Kenya. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study provides evidence of the building blocks of supply chain management practices and a framework of their implementation for performance improvement to the managers in the dairy industry. Theoretically, the study contributes to the development and advancement of the theory of supply chain management (SCM) as well as validation of the Resource-based View (RBV). Policy-wise, the study provides directions for coming up with policies geared towards performance improvements in the dairy industry.

ASSESSMENT OF PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY FROM UNREACTIVE TOGO PHOSPHATE ROCK BY LEGUME AND CEREAL CROPS IN TWO GHANAIAN SOILS

Purpose: In recent years, phosphate rock (PR) for direct application has been tested in tropical acid soils as a potential alternative to conventional water-soluble P fertilizers like Single Superphosphate (SSP) and Triple Superphosphate (TSP). However, direct application of PR with low reactivity does not always give satisfactory results. Legume and cereal crops represent a strategy that can be used to solubilize P from some of these unreactive PRs. The objective of this study was to assess the availability of P from unreactive Togo Phosphate Rock (TPR) relative to TSP by six (6) crop species in two Ghanaian soils. Methodology: The study was conducted in the greenhouse of the Crop Science Department, University of Ghana. Three P rates, 0mg, 50mg and 100mg P of TPR and TSP were applied to a kilogram of soil per pot in the two soil series. Randomized Complete Block Design was used to do the analyses. Results/Findings: Application of TSP resulted in higher dry matter and P uptake irrespective of the soil type. Among the legumes, cowpea gave the highest dry matter yield. Fairly, a similar trend was obtained with the application of TPR. Among the cereals, the average P uptake by sorghum from TPR was the highest, followed by maize and millet in the Nzema soil. In the Adenta series, P uptake by maize was the highest, followed by sorghum and millet. Phosphorus (P) uptake by the cereals from TPR was generally better in the Adenta than the Nzema soil. Unique contribution to theories, practice and policy: Results show increasing the rate of TPR to 100mg P/pot resulted in an increase in dry matter yield and P uptake in both soils, but was inferior to 100mg P/pot TSP application. Consequently, the rate of application of TPR should always be high if farmers want the best from their investments. Again, the low relative agronomic effectiveness of TPR for all the crops, proved the low reactivity of the material and its subsequent low performance compared with the water-soluble P. The low reactivity and the high molar mass of PO43-/CO32- of the TPR will always make it difficult for P to be made available from the TPR despite the acidity of the soil, the high density of the crops and the ability of the tested crops to exude organic acids, which facilitate phosphorus availability from TPR, therefore making TPR unsuitable for direct application.