Scandinavian State Formation 900–1537: Break and Continuity

This concluding chapter discusses the process of state formation in the three Scandinavian kingdoms between 900 and 1537. It shows that the Scandinavian political units formed by the end of the sixteenth century were remarkably stable over the course of the following centuries despite a series of internal and external conflicts. Petty principalities formed within one kingdom as the result of dynastic divisions (or through other causes) did not develop into independent kingdoms, but either returned to their original units or remained in some kind of feudal subordination. The dynastic unions from 1319 onwards had their origin in the ambitions of the kings, together with marriage patterns and rules of succession introduced during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Sweden ceded from the union in the 1520s, quickly reestablishing its old borders with Denmark and Norway.

Royal, Aristocratic, and Ecclesiastical Culture

This chapter examines four themes that raise the question of the connection between cultural development and social change in the Scandinavian kingdoms: religious versus secular literature, the social importance of Christianity, the writing of history, and the formation of a courtly culture from the mid-thirteenth century onwards. In particular, it considers the extent to which cultural and literary expressions of these social changes were actively used to promote the interests of the monarchy, the Church, and the aristocracy. The chapter first discusses the role of the Church as the main institution of learning in Scandinavia and in the rest of Europe before assessing the extent to which Christianity penetrated Scandinavian society at levels below the clerical elite. It then turns to a charismatic figure, St. Birgitta of Vadstena in Sweden, and historical writing as a literary genre in medieval Scandinavia. Finally, it provides an overview of courtly culture in Scandinavia.

The Origins of the Scandinavian Kingdoms

This chapter focuses on the origins of the Scandinavian kingdoms, beginning with a discussion of early Scandinavian society. The history of Scandinavia goes back to the first settlements which date to the end of the last glacial age around 10,000 BC. Already during the last centuries BC, a largely homogenous agricultural zone had developed in Denmark, southern Sweden, the coastal regions of Norway, and southern and western Finland. The rest of Scandinavia was dominated by low-intensive agriculture, hunting and gathering, or pastoral nomadism. After citing examples that point to some continuity in the nature of Scandinavian society before and after the rise of the kingdoms and the introduction of Christianity, the chapter considers Scandinavia's greater involvement in Christian Europe through the Viking expeditions. It also examines the division of Scandinavia into three kingdoms, along with their foreign policy until around 1300.

Literature

There is a continuous tradition of historical writing from the Middle Ages to the present day in all three of the Scandinavian kingdoms, as well as in Iceland, though admittedly it began later (not until the early fourteenth century) in Sweden than in the other countries. The works dating from the Middle Ages have already been discussed. Those of the Early Modern Period are of interest as evidence of learning and for an understanding of how “history” was viewed at the time, and also because they contain a number of documents from the Middle Ages whose originals have been lost. However, the beginning of modern scholarly historical writing is usually dated to the early nineteenth century, in Scandinavia as in the rest of Europe. The professionalization of history, which started in Germany, quickly spread to Scandinavia. Throughout Europe, this professionalization was related to a national revival that typically placed great emphasis on a nation’s medieval past....

State Formation, Social Change, and the Division of Power

This chapter examines state formation, social change, and the division of power in the Scandinavian kingdoms, focusing in particular on the degree of bureaucratization in general and the extent to which it increased the power of the central government. It first considers social stratification in the High Middle Ages before discussing sources of royal and ecclesiastical revenues such as taxes, fines, and tolls, as well as the income of the Church. It also looks at major changes in the character and importance of Scandinavian trade and how the growth in trade increased town populations and led to the foundation of new towns. Finally, it explains how the division of power in contemporary society—at least at the central level—becomes a question of the relationship between the monarchy, the Church, and the secular aristocracy.

The Later Middle Ages: Agrarian Crisis, Constitutional Conflicts, and Scandinavian Unions

This chapter examines the socioeconomic and political consequences of the agrarian crisis triggered by the Black Death and how the Black Death was related to the dynastic unions during the later Middle Ages. It first considers the origins of the union by focusing on the dynastic and political aspects of the Black Death, and in particular the renewed Scandinavian integration during the period 1261–1397. It then discusses the Kalmar Union and the conflicts over it between monarchy and aristocracy in 1434–1523, as well as the reasons for the collapse of the union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. It also explores state formation in Scandinavia in the later Middle Ages before concluding with an analysis of the Reformation and its consequences during the years 1523–1537.

The Consolidation of the Scandinavian Kingdoms, c. 1050–1350

This chapter examines the consolidation of the Scandinavian kingdoms during the period 1050–1350. It begins with a discussion of dynastic continuity and the rules of succession in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, focusing in particular on how the formation of a dynasty, combined with rules about individual succession, gave the monarchy a legal foundation. The chapter proceeds by analyzing the rise of the Scandinavian kingdoms as an example of the export of some central features of the civilization that was forming at the time in Western Christendom, notably a royal and an ecclesiastical organization, which entailed the centralization of important social functions such as religion, law, and warfare. It also considers changes in the administration of justice in the three kingdoms through courts of law and the development of royal legislation parallel to the expansion of royal justice. Finally, it describes the Scandinavian military organization known as leding.

Introduction

This book charts the rise of three Scandinavian kingdoms—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—from the tenth century until the end of the Kalmar Union and the introduction of the Reformation in the early sixteenth century. Drawing on new ideas about personal relationships, rituals, feuds, and mediation, it examines the kingdoms' alternative paths to state formation and the specifically medieval contribution to this process. In discussing Scandinavian state formation, the book also considers the changing map of Western Christendom in the High Middle Ages. In particular, it describes how the European state was exported to new areas and how Western Christendom expanded in the Mediterranean, in Scandinavia, and in East Central Europe. Whereas the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was for the most part an object of conquest and colonization, the three Scandinavian kingdoms were established in the North and West, and Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary in the East.