Sport Rivalry Is More Than Just “The Game”

Sport rivalry research has grown from sport fandom research. And, while sport fandom research has a strong knowledge base, sport rivalry research is still in its infancy. This chapter briefly reviews the extant literature on sport rivalry. Topics include research examining geopolitical rivalries within international football (soccer), the psychological effects of sport rivalry, schadenfreude, and the creation of the Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale, a measure of sport rivalry. The marketing implications of sport rivalry research are discussed and areas for future research are provided.

Rivalry In and Out of Sport

The current chapter offers (1) an overview of what is known regarding sport rivalry and (2) how that knowledge can be applied to both sport and non-sport settings. In particular, the authors discuss what is known about rivalry and intergroup relations, detailing specific examples from the sport setting. Then, the essay addresses how non-sport organizations, and society at large, can benefit from the literature on sport rivalry. Included in this are examples of responsible promotion of rivalry and group competition, along with a discussion of the Adventures with Sport Rivalry Man comics, cartoons, and curriculum, a program intended to teach people about rivalry and appropriate behavior toward others. Suggestions for responsibly promoting rivalry and competition outside of the sport setting are offered along with areas for future consideration. Finally, a challenge is presented to future researchers and practitioners to improve the use of rivalry to promote products and decrease group member deviance.

Attitudes Toward Rival Teams' Naming-Rights Sponsors

The purpose of the chapter is to present an exploratory study examining the effects of rivalry on attitudes toward naming-rights sponsors in college football. Although research on the effects of partnerships with rival teams on fans' reactions and/or perceptions of the brand has been appearing for over a decade, the volume of work is still quite limited. From the research that does exist, findings tend to be fairly consistent in that negative transfer effects on sponsoring brands have been found to exist among rival fans. The current study investigated the effects of team identification and perceived strength of rivalry on sponsor image and behavioral intentions of individuals for whom the team with the naming-rights partnership is not their favorite.

Out-Group Treatment in Higher Education

The chapter investigates differences in the ways college students compare to out-groups using the different NCAA competition divisions. In particular, students enrolled at schools in all six (i.e., Power Five, Group of Five, FCS, DI No Football, DII, DIII) reported their perceptions of rival school's athletics teams using the Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale (SRFPS). Differences were found regarding student perceptions among competition divisions. Specifically, attendance at a Power Five School influenced student's willingness to support rival teams against other teams, the enjoyment from defeating the rival team, perceptions of rival academic prestige and fan behavior, and likelihood of experiencing Glory Out of Reflected Failure (GORFing), or celebrating when the rival experiences indirect failure. Further, students attending DI No Football Schools and DIII Schools chose academic prestige as a way to derogate their rival schools. Discussion focuses on implications to higher education and avenues for future research.

Rivalry Influences on Fan Engagement Within Twitter

Rivalries and social media influence the way individuals consume, produce, and experience sport. Thus, the purpose of the study was to understand the effects of sport rivalries on fan engagement within Twitter for segments of the Manchester United Football Club's business ecosystem (i.e., team brand, news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm). First, the authors examined how specific Twitter content affected fan engagement during rivalry matches. Second, the authors compared fan engagement and virtual maltreatment within the segments of the Manchester United ecosystem. An analysis of 2,750 tweets from Manchester United's ecosystem during the 2015-2016 season was conducted. Results demonstrated a significant rivalry effect on fan engagement across all segments of Manchester United's ecosystem, and a significant virtual maltreatment effect on fan engagement during rivalry matches for the news-based fan club, unofficial fan club, and firm. Findings from the study provide practical and theoretical implications for marketing competitive relationships.

Who Is Your GOAT?

There is little research explaining how affective dispositions of fans such as love and hate toward an athlete or team can determine sport rivalry. In consumer research, the concept of love and hate are often investigated related to brands. In view of the fact that sport athletes and sport teams can be described and managed as brands, the concept of brand love and brand hate is also applicable in sport marketing. Against that backdrop, the research question guiding the present chapter is: What is the impact of implicit and explicit love as well as hate toward an athlete in a rivalry competition? The current study extends the sport rivalry model as proposed by Dalakas and Melancon. With that said, the purpose of the present study is to integrate and examine fans' affective dispositions in terms of athlete love and athlete hate as potential key drivers and emotional appeal as further key outcome within a sport rivalry context.

Toward a Typology of Rivalry

The chapter offers (1) a brief overview of what is currently known about rivalry and (2) the need for further understanding and investigating the differences between rival categories. Using college football in the United States as a baseline, the chapter introduces a possible typology of rivalry, building on previous research on the foundations and antecedents of rivalry. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of (1) utilizing a typology of rivalry in future research and (2) calling for additional inquiry and conversation about a typology of rivalry in various competition settings.

From Rivalry to Antipathy Amid Sports Enthusiasts in Individual Sports

The main focus of the chapter is to bring out the extremes—immoderations and intemperance—in sports rivalry by primarily considering the case of Monica Seles' stabbing on court by a crazy Steffi Graf fan in 1993. Rivalries among players eventually extend to fans to bring about diverse dark shades (hostility and violence) among the latter. An outcome of being a part of a fan base is extreme devoutness and fervor towards one's own favorite player while considering partisans of an adversary group as an “outgroup.” Sports rivalries customarily create a safe environment to support the creation of ingroup and outgroup, although in fanatical situations, real fights do break out among rival fans. The chapter shall delve into these aspects and consider a distinct case of extreme fan behavior as an upshot of arch rivalry in sports world. The authors shall further examine the role of different stakeholders in bringing about a healthy playing environment and fostering positive fan behavior that shall bring laurels to the game.

Self-Conscious Emotions and Fans

This chapter provides background and context for the importance of self-conscious emotions, particularly shame, pride, and envy/jealousy, in understanding fan behaviors. Particular attention is provided to how self-conscious emotions are elicited, how they differ from basic emotions such as anger and joy, the adaptive and maladaptive purposes that they each serve, how social identity and vicarious experience are connected to self-conscious emotions, and how researchers can utilize these topics to better understand fans and fan behaviors.

The Roots of Rivalry

This chapter provides a foundation for those new to rivalry inquiry. First, it introduces seminal social psychology concepts, such as group identity, social identity theory, social categorization theory, and ingroup/outgroup formation. Next, the chapter explains three properties of rivalry and the 100-point single-item measure of rivalry intensity. Study 1 examines these in new leagues (MLB, MLS, NBA), finding robust support for rivalry as 1) non-exclusive (fans perceive multiple rivals), 2) continuous in scale (intensity varies among rivals), and 3) bidirectional (opposing fans rarely share equivalent perceptions of the rivalry). Study 2 explains 11 rivalry antecedents and investigates their manifestation within five sport leagues (MLB, MLS, NBA, NFL, NHL). These are, in descending order of influence: frequency of play, defining moments, recent parity, star factors, geography, relative dominance, historical parity, competition for personnel, cultural difference, unfairness, and cultural similarity. The authors close by noting limitations and future directions for rivalry research.