The Techno-Religious Age

First, we consider the “spiritual search” that many have found to be foundational to humanity. Religion is foundational to humanity across the world. To some extent, sociology is a “secular panacea” for what classical philosophy called “The religious quest.” The religious, and nonreligious quest is a search for meaning most commonly understood in religious contexts as a search for “god.” In the last decade of the 20th century, a number of authors have recognized that technology is being used for a “spiritual quest.” Increasingly, this is being expressed through the Internet and World Wide Web. The “search beyond Google” represents this human quest for meaning. Even though organised religion may be declining, the religious quest is not necessarily abating. Technology, along with some “alternative” religious expressions, is supporting the present day search.

Beyond Culture

In this final chapter, we conclude the examination of religion and technology. We have explored both how technology is impacting religion and, in the last few chapters, how theology impacts technology. We draw these strands together now in a consideration of impact upon society, where technology and religion not only coexist, but contribute mutual benefit to each other. In such a scenario, widespread through enough cultures and societies, we have what may be called a global techno-religious age. We start by describing the new global or “transcultural” culture that some people consider ICT technology is creating: a technoculture that transcends particular traditional cultures. We propose the Five-Is of information, immediacy, interaction, intelligence, and Internet, as underpinning elements of computer-facilitated life in such a culture. We see the Five-Is as an important part of “transculture,” and transculture as a “construction” that does indeed span across the globe as a framework for a techno-religious age.

Technology and Religion

This text examines technology and religion. We start by pausing to define technology. We find that the superficial definitions describe examples of technology. The deeper definitions seek to identify its nature and essence. Overall, technology is to be distinguished from science. Unlike science, technology is applied to daily life. Science seeks knowledge as an end in itself. Science can be considered to be “neutral,” without any moral or ethical bias, while technology can never be neutral because it is applied. In technology, there are questions of what applications are made and what is done with the technological product.

Christian Community

This chapter focuses on Christian community. We start with a consideration of real Christian community, finding that it is unique because of the relationship that is expected to exist between members: this relationship is one of “love,” in a “fellowship” dictated by the common status of “believer in Christ.” Secular communities are broader in type, and do not necessarily have this bond underpinning. There is evidence that both secular and religious communities have largely broken down in Western cultures. Many have found that the computer and virtual communities that are emerging are actually assisting people to find community once again. Some of the helpful factors in kindling virtual communities are the “levelling” and organisational structuresthat virtual communities make possible. Increasingly, it appears that virtual communities are providing an alternative to conventional religious communities. Debbie Gaunt provides a useful comparison between six models of Christian community and virtual community. And while the possibilities of virtual Christian communities are exciting, they are limited in (1) the lack of physical presence within which to express the most primitive aspects of community and (2) lack of guarantee that the type of relationship is that “love” that flows from the mutual status in Christ.

21st Century Christian

This chapter makes a focus on in the 21st century. We start with a focus on the ideology that was Christendom, tracing its origins, rise, and decline, in order to appreciate the present context. We find that Christendom represented a political alliance between church and state that, in many ways, compromised the church, and represented a secular invasion into it. The persecutions of the early church were abated, although the influences of the Roman Empire and imperial court remain to this day in church buildings, in the distinction of clergy from laity, in the passive nature of worship, and in many other ways. In accordance with those theologians who find religion to be a “human construction,” Christianity in Christendom is, in many ways, the ultimate defiance, inhibiting both “faith” and God’s self-revelation.

The Philosophy of Technology

We start by outlining some of the problems concerning technology and society that have led people to reflect upon it. One of the most poignant questions is that of “technological determinism” and the extent to which technology is “under control” vs. the extent to which it controls society. The speed of change, the assumption that technology is beneficial, the uptake and geographical spread of technology across cultures, and the extent to which technology creates a never-ending cycle of increased complexity are just some of the “issues” that require examination in the question of technology’s impact upon society.

Principle-Based Engineering

This chapter discusses a new conception of computation. The conception is one of constraints rather than rules. In contrast to the rule-based approach of Turing machines, Post systems and lambda calculus, the constraint-based approach “models” the constraints in operation in the system, and between the system and the environment. There are similarities with Putnam’s idea that “everything is computation” because (1) computation must be “situated” in a profound way, embedded in its environment, but, there is also (2) a move away from the intuitive idea of “algorithm” as a step-by-step procedure, modellling the behaviour of the system in its environment, requiring a mapping of the abstract “algorithm” states to the physical states of “reality.”

The Theology of Technology

In this chapter, we consider another aspect of the nexus of religion and technology. This is the idea that theology can actually inform technology. We start off distinguishing the term “theology of technology” from “cybertheology.” Cybertheology still waits an adequate definition, but it is some vague notion that there is “theology” happening with technology simply because we call it such, and have a religious theme. Thus, we may find “theological” significance in the way the Internet “connects” people, as they may be “connected” in a spiritual bond, and call it “cybertheology.” However, the “theology of technology” is concerned with “conventional theology” being applied to technology. We examine six different patterns for the way that science and theology have been related, and consider how in AI, technology and theology are related in some special ways.

Future Directions and Challenges

In this chapter, we take a reflective look at these 21st century technologies, considering the future directions. Rather than specific projects or predictions about what AI might achieve, we consider the future in broader terms. First, we examine the penetration of AI technologies into society, observing that much AI is embedded in existing products. These products are commonplace and accepted, and people are often unaware that AI has even been utilised in them. AI will improve processes and services and continue to enhance tasks and operations that must be done manually. We consider how this trend will continue in the future. As the machine gains “intelligence” to act in society, the need to “relate” to the human world increases.

The Philosophy of AI

As we shall see, the “theology of technology” can help inform the philosophical underpinnings of AI. We start with elucidating the idea of computation, and describe the idea of Turing machine computation. Its equivalence with Post systems and the lambda calculus are explained, and the way that these systems may be regarded as “rule based” and “generative” are brought out. All the equivalent formal models define enumerable languages. However, as Turing’s original definition demonstrated, there are definable numbers that are not computable, that is, a computer could not be used to write some numbers down, yet they exist. The presence of “unsolvable” computational problems also reveals the limitations of Turing machines, and suggests the current limits of computation. While the “intuitive” understanding of computation is one of “step-by-step” algorithmic procedure, it will be hard to conceive of any other computational model.