3. Authorities

‘Authorities’ considers how the rules of usage are established. It first describes the role of dictionaries, frequently held to be the ultimate authority. It then discusses linguistic academies, governing bodies that make pronouncements about correct usage. An alternative source to the dictionary is the usage guide, which tends to adopt a more prescriptive approach and which focuses on a small subset of frequently disputed points of usage. Other ways of determining acceptability is to turn to examples of actual usage, logic, or etymology. Despite the many controversies concerning correct usage and how it should be established, each of the authorities discussed would agree that there is a single authoritative form of the language, known as Standard English.

7. Why do we care?

Why do we care about grammar and spelling to the extent that minor errors trigger paroxysms of despondency and gloom concerning the future of our society and its language? Since most people recognize the inevitability of linguistic change, we might wonder why they are unwilling to allow the language to continue to change today. ‘Why do we care?’ suggests one answer to this question lies in the fact that, as users of English, it is impossible for us to take an external stance from which to observe current usage. Another reason for our concern with such pedantry is bound up with the social cachet that surrounds the concept of ‘good grammar’.

2. Origins

Where does the English language come from? While English is distantly related to both Latin and French, it is principally a Germanic language. ‘Origins’ provides a brief history of the English language, highlighting a number of substantial changes, which have radically altered its structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling. It begins with Old English (AD 650–1100), then moves on to Middle English (1100–1500), which saw the impact of the French language after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The Early Modern English period (1500–1750) witnessed the biggest impact of Latin upon English, while Late Modern English (1750–1900) resulted in an expansion of specialist vocabulary using Latin and Greek.

4. Standards

Standard English is a fixed variety, intolerant of variation, and is used throughout the population of English users, irrespective of geography. Where did Standard English come from, how did it come to win such widespread acceptance in the face of so much disagreement, and what is its status today? ‘Standards’ explains that Standard English is a relatively recent phenomenon, which grew out of an eighteenth-century anxiety about the status of English, and which prompted a concern for the codification and ‘ascertaining’, or fixing, of English. Before the eighteenth century, dialect variation was the norm, both in speech and in writing. Spellings, dialects and pronunciation, and good grammar are all discussed.

6. Global Englishes

A major reason for the huge expansion in English speakers was the colonization of America. As the migration process continued throughout the seventeenth century, the discrete dialect boundaries that had existed in England were jumbled up. Consequently, new dialects emerged drawing features from each of the contributing dialects. ‘Global Englishes’ considers the spread of English into America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Asia, as well as mixed varieties, pidgins, and creoles. It also describes the Kachru model that employs three concentric circles to reflect the different ways in which English continues to gain new speakers. Given this narrative of constant expansion, language mixing, and new dialect formation, what is future for English in the twenty-first century?

5. Varieties

‘Varieties’ investigates how language varies according to region, discussing regional and social dialects, and how language varies according to use. It considers how Scots, one of several languages spoken in Scotland, differs from both Standard English and Scottish Standard English, although it has much in common. Although pronunciation is the most obvious area of difference, there are many variations between Scots and Standard English grammar and lexicon. Is Scots a dialect of English, or a language in its own right? The linguistic evidence points both ways. The difference between dialects and accents is considered as well as dialect grammars and vocabulary, and emergence of new varieties associated with electronic communication.

1. What is English?

Over 1 billion people speak English either as their first or second language. Are all these people speaking the same language, or are we witnessing the emergence of new Englishes? English has been in use for 1,500 years and has changed to such an extent that the form of the language used by the Anglo-Saxons—Old English—is unrecognizable to contemporary English speakers. ‘What is English?’ considers five different translations of a passage from the New Testament, each of which has a claim to represent a kind of English. These translations raise different questions about the status of the English language, its linguistic forebears, and progeny. What does the future hold for Standard British English?