AbstractIntegration of the proviral DNA intermediate into the host cell genome represents an essential step in the retroviral life cycle. While the reason(s) for this requirement remains unclear, it is known that unintegrated proviral DNA is epigenetically silenced. Here, we demonstrate that HIV-1 mutants lacking functional integrase can mount a robust, spreading infection in cells expressing the Tax transcription factor encoded by human T-cell leukemia virus 1. In these cells, HIV-1 forms episomal DNA circles, analogous to Hepatitis B virus covalently closed circular DNAs (cccDNAs), that are transcriptionally active and fully capable of supporting viral replication. This rescue correlates with the loss of inhibitory epigenetic marks, and the acquisition of activating marks, on histones bound to unintegrated HIV-1 DNA. Thus retroviral DNA integration may have evolved, at least in part, as a mechanism to avoid the epigenetic silencing of extrachromosomal viral DNA by host innate antiviral factors.SignificanceWhile retroviral DNA is synthesized normally after infection by integrase-deficient viruses, the resultant episomal DNA is then epigenetically silenced. Here, we show that expression of the Tax transcription factor encoded by a second human retrovirus, HTLV-1, prevents the epigenetic silencing of unintegrated HIV-1 DNA and instead induces the addition of activating epigenetic marks, and the recruitment of NF-kB/Rel proteins, to the HIV-1 LTR promoter. Moreover, in the presence of Tax, the HIV-1 DNA circles that form in the absence of integrase function are not only efficiently transcribed but also support a spreading, pathogenic IN- HIV-1 infection. Thus, retroviruses have the potential to replicate without integration, as is indeed seen with HBV.
Early Steps of Hepatitis B Life Cycle: From Capsid Nuclear Import to cccDNA Formation