The Diner Versus the Ducat

1973 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 77-96 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jere L. Bacharach
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
Gold Coin ◽  
George Washington ◽  
Modern Times ◽  
International Trading ◽  
Venetian Republic ◽  
Second World

Since the Second World War, United States currency has been accepted in almost every country in the world, and in many locations the ‘George Washington’ dollar has been in greater demand than local monies. In ancient, medieval and modern times, other currencies have had a similar success. Examples of this phenomenon are the ancient Athenian silver ‘owl’, theByzantinegoldsolidus, the Florentine gold florin, and the Maria Theresa silver taler. In the late fourteenth century A.D. the florin was replaced by the gold coin of Venice, the ducat, as the ‘dollar of the Middle Ages’; that is, the international currencypar excellence. The position of the ducat was associated with the international trading position of Venice as well as the fact that ‘the Venetianducato, which was first coined in 1284, kept both its weight and fineness remarkably intact up to the end of the Venetian Republic’. The ducat's domination of the Eastern Mediterranean money market led to the appearance of a series of imitations, including Islamic imitations which were produced in response to the introduction of ducats into the internal economy of Mamluk Egypt. All the accounts based on Arabic sources date the domination of the ducat in the Mamluk market froma.h.801/a.d.1399. These same sources describe the various attempts by Mamluk sultans to meet the challenge of the ducat by coining imitations. Their efforts culminated in the ashrafî, first issued in 829/1425, which successfully replaced the ducat as the principal gold currency of the Mamluk Empire until the Ottoman conquest of 922/1517.

Modern Greece and the Sephardim of Salonica an Overview

Belleten ◽  
2000 ◽  
Vol 64 (239) ◽  
pp. 161-186
Author(s):  
Albert De Vıdas
Keyword(s):  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Greek Population ◽  
World War ◽  
Modern Times ◽  
Anti Semitism ◽  
Basic Facts ◽  
The City ◽  
Second World

The first encounter between Greece and tha Spanish and Portuguese Jews (the Sephardim) in modern times started in 1821 during the Greek rebellion against the Sultan. From the beginning this encounter would follow a rocky path because of three basic facts; the faithfulness of the Sephardim to the Ottoman Empire, the traditional religious anti-Semitism of the Greek population and the economic rivalry between Jews and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean. Nowhere would the antagonism of the Greek population and government towards the Sephardim be more intense than in the city of Salonica, the Sephardic metropolis which Greece occupied in 1912. With over two-thirds of the population being Sephardi and with Spanish being the everyday language of the population, Salonica, under the liberal rule of the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire had flourished economically and had become the center of the Sephardic Nation within the Empire. Greek policy would be one of constant antagonism from the time of the occupation until the extermination of the Sephardim by the Germans and their loal collaborators during the Second World War. Every effort would be made by the Greek government to diminish the influence of the Sephardim in the city and to reduce their presence and economic wellbeing. The 70,000 Sephardim of Salonica at the time of the Greek occupation would see their numbers diminished by emigration. Those who remained would be reduced to a frightened minority in a city that had been theirs for over 400 years.

scholarly journals Reflections of migration and migrant facts in German history

2020 ◽  
Vol 17 (4) ◽  
pp. 947-967
Author(s):  
Gülcan Yücedağ
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Forced Migration ◽  
Second World War ◽  
German History ◽  
World War ◽  
Guest Worker ◽  
Refugee Problem ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Second World ◽  
The Middle Ages

After the Second World War in Germany, guest worker migrations came into question. In recent years, the refugee problem in Europe in general and Germany in particular has been attracting attention. However, German history has a much richer content in terms of migration and migrant types. It is possible to say that the content of migration varies according to factors such as the way of migration, the duration of stay in the target country, and distance. Meanwhile, the definition of migrant is also classified in relation to religious, political, national or ethnic identities. This study traces the migration and migrant facts in German history since the Middle Ages. Although Germany received a high rate of migration, until recently it has not called itself as a migration country. Despite that, this paper aims to show that Germany was not independent from the types of migration and migrants also in the past. Therefore, the reflections of migration and migrant facts in German history are researched. In this article, the literature review is done and the data are descriptively analysed. In the Middle Ages, the mobility of the nobility, clergy, students and merchants attracts attention. Forced migration and immigration to America and the impact of industrialization on migration are other important issues. The types of migration and migrants that gained importance during and after the First World War include diversity. Millions of refugees created by the Second World War, guest worker migrations with international treaties after the war, ethnic Germans’ remigration after the Cold War, and the current refugee problem are important reflections in German history related to migration and migrant facts. ​Extended English summary is in the end of Full Text PDF (TURKISH) file. Özet Almanya’da İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra misafir işçi göçleri gündeme gelmiştir. Yakın zamanda ise genel olarak Avrupa, özel olarak Almanya’da mülteci sorunu dikkat çekmektedir. Bununla birlikte Alman tarihi, göç ve göçmen türleri açısından çok daha zengin bir içeriğe sahiptir. Göçün içeriğinin göç etme biçimi, hedef ülkede kalış süresi, mesafe gibi faktörlere göre değiştiğini söylemek mümkündür. Buna paralel olarak göçmen tanımı da dini, siyasi, ulusal veya etnik kimliklerle ilişkili olarak sınıflandırılır. Bu çalışma, Ortaçağ’dan günümüze kadar Alman tarihinde göç ve göçmen olgularının izi sürmektedir. Almanya, yüksek oranda göç almasına rağmen, yakın zamana kadar kendisini bir göç ülkesi olarak adlandırmamıştır. Bununla birlikte, bu çalışma Almanya’nın, geçmişte de göçlerden ve göçmenlerden bağımsız olmadığını göstermeyi hedeflemektedir. Bu nedenle, göç ve göçmen olgularının Alman tarihindeki yansımaları incelenmiştir. Bu çalışmada literatür taraması yapılarak veriler betimsel analize tabi tutulmuştur. Ortaçağ’da soyluların, din adamlarının, öğrencilerin ve tüccarların hareketliliği dikkat çekmektedir. Zorunlu göçler ve Amerika’ya yönelen göçler ile sanayileşmenin göçe etkisi önem taşıyan diğer konulardır. Birinci Dünya Savaşı ve sonrasında öne çıkan göç türleri ve göçmenlik hâlleri çeşitlilik içermektedir. İkinci Dünya Savaşı’nın yarattığı milyonlarca mülteci, savaş sonrasında uluslararası anlaşmalarla gerçekleşen misafir işçi göçleri, Soğuk Savaş sonrasında etnik Almanların geri göçü ve günümüz mülteci sorunu, göç ve göçmen olgularının Alman tarihindeki önemli yansımalarıdır.

Jerzy Wyrozumski

2021 ◽  
pp. 519-520
Keyword(s):  
Social History ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Political System ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Religious Movements ◽  
World War ◽  
Active Involvement ◽  
History Of ◽  
Second World ◽  
The Middle Ages

This chapter provides the obituary for Jerzy Wyrozumski, who died in Kraków in early November 2018 at the age of 88. It talks about Wyrozumski as a professor of history at the Jagiellonian University and an outstanding scholar of the Middle Ages for many years. He was born in Trembowla in East Galicia and was resettled with his family in Kozle in Silesia, which was incorporated into Poland after the Second World War. Wyrozumski's particular interest was the economic and social history of Poland during the Middle Ages, the functioning of the medieval political system, and medieval religious movements in Europe. The chapter mentions Wyrozumski's active involvement in the organization of the Conference on Jewish Autonomy in Poland that was held at the Jagiellonian University in September 1986.

Federal Systems of Government

1976 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 137-186
Author(s):  
P. Elman ◽  
M. Knisbacher
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
World Government ◽  
Modern Times ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second World

It is perhaps paradoxical that the spread of nationalism in modern times has been accompanied by a counter-movement for the establishment of broader units of government, not only internationally, where plans and projects for some form of world government go back to at least the 17th century, but regionally as well. This study is concerned with the local or regional expression of integration, called federalism or federation.Clearly inspired, if not directly and immediately affected, by the example of the United States, the federal movement made headway in the 19th century, but it is largely since the end of the Second World War and the demise of colonialism, that its dimensions have grown. Although its success generally is rather doubtful—there appears to be a kind of empiric rule that the first fifteen are crucial—the retreat, so to speak, from particularism and attempts to advance to geographically broader units of government have persisted.

scholarly journals Robin Fletcher

2016 ◽  
Vol 40 (2) ◽  
pp. 315-319
Author(s):  
David Holton ◽  
Peter Mackridge
Keyword(s):  
Eastern Mediterranean ◽  
First World War ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
Modern Greek ◽  
The First World War ◽  
Second World ◽  
First World

Robin Anthony Fletcher, who died on 15 January 2016, was born in Godalming on 30 May 1922. He was educated at Marlborough College, as was R. M. Dawkins, who served as Bywater and Sotheby Professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek at Oxford from 1920 to 1939. As Dawkins had done in the First World War, Robin served in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve in the Second World War, during which time he commanded a Greek caique in the Eastern Mediterranean. At the end of the war Robin was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

Hugo Friedrich, Montaigne

2014 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank-Rutger Hausmann
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Second World War ◽  
World War ◽  
European Literature ◽  
The Past ◽  
German Army ◽  
Jewish Heritage ◽  
Second World ◽  
Romance Philology ◽  
Comprehensive Study

AbstractIn the years immediately following the Second World War, three books written by German professors of Romance Philology were published in Switzerland: Mimesis by Erich Auerbach in 1946, European literature and the Middle Ages by Ernst Robert Curtius in 1948, and Montaigne by Hugo Friedrich in 1949. Even if the subjects of these studies and the approaches of their authors are different, their aim is nevertheless the same: They want to contribute to the idea of continuity in European literature. It is certainly logical to conclude that Auerbach, banished from Germany by the Nazi authorities because of his Jewish heritage, Curtius, surviving the years from 1933 to 1945 in »inner emigration«, and Friedrich, serving as interpreter in the German army, learned the lessons of the past and evoke the heritage of literature as an antidote to ideological blindness and fanaticism. Friedrich, whose study of Montaigne’s Les Essais forms the center of the following article, is internationally known first and foremost for his bestseller Structure of modern poetry (1957), translated into thirteen languages, but also his work Montaigne, which is the first comprehensive study of Montaigne’s personality and work in German and, even today, far from being outdated. Strangely enough, the book is actually only available in the English translation by Dawn Eng. It helps the modern reader to understand not only the complex composition of Montaigne’s essays, but also their epoch-making place in French moralistic literature.

Partnership in the Lease of Cults in Greek Antiquity

1957 ◽  
Vol 50 (2) ◽  
pp. 133-143 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. Sokolowski
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Second World War ◽  
Fifth Century ◽  
Asia Minor ◽  
World War ◽  
Classical World ◽  
Roman Egypt ◽  
Second World ◽  
The Middle Ages ◽  
Late Roman

We are in possession of a Number of documents (inscriptions and papyri) relating to the lease of priesthoods in Greece and Egypt, dating from the fifth century B.C. to late Roman times. That curious practice, similar in some respect to the holding of Church benefices in the Middle Ages, has been studied by different scholars, but without agreement on many substantial points. Before the second World War K. Wilhelmson and M. Segre dedicated very important studies to the problem, advancing considerably the interpretation of the sources. In my Lois Sacrées of Asia Minor I collected many specimens of these documents and tried my best to promote their understanding. But nobody has sought to link the sale of cults in Greece with the same practice, as it is well attested through the papyri, in Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt. Meanwhile the inscriptions and the papyri, put together, not only fill the lacunas existing in both fields of documentation, but contribute to elucidate the legal side of the practice itself. With the recent publication of the study of M. Talamanca on auction in the classical world, the task has now become easier. Unfortunately the author does not utilize the abundant epigraphical material on our subject. I should like to endeavor to supply in part this need.

Christians, Hindus, Jews, Muslims and Sikhs

Migrant City ◽  
2020 ◽  
pp. 196-224
Author(s):  
Panikos Panayi
Keyword(s):  
Twentieth Century ◽  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Religious Diversity ◽  
Second World War ◽  
First Century ◽  
World War ◽  
Sacred Spaces ◽  
The Reformation ◽  
Second World

This chapter explores religious diversity in London. Because of the variety of ethnic groups living in London by the beginning of the twenty-first century it would seem undeniable that religious diversity increased in London after 1945. However, as this chapter shows, religious diversity in London can be traced even further back — to the Middle Ages. Indeed, religious diversity has characterized the evolution of London since the Reformation as Protestant refugees from the continent moved to the British capital to escape persecution and established their own churches, followed from the seventeenth century by the first of many streams of Jews who constructed their own sacred spaces. The Irish and other Europeans did the same from the nineteenth century while the period since the end of the Second World War has seen the emergence of numerous mosques, some of them with origins in the earlier twentieth century. In London, the place of worship usually forms part of a wider welfare and educational network which attempts to reconnect with believers from the homeland.

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