Large-eddy simulation (LES) with actuator models has become the state-of-the-art numerical tool to study the complex interaction between the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and wind turbines. In this paper, a new evaluation of actuator disk models (ADMs) for LES of wind turbine flows is presented. Several details of the implementation of such models are evaluated based on a test case studied experimentally. In contrast to other test cases used in previous similar studies, the present test case consists of a wind turbine immersed in a realistic turbulent boundary-layer flow, for which accurate data for the turbine, the flow, the thrust and the power are available. It is found that the projection of the forces generated by the turbine into the flow solver grid is crucial for rotor predictions, especially for the power, and less important for the wake flow prediction. In this context, the projection of the forces into the flow solver grid should be as accurate as possible, in order to conserve the consistency between the computed axial velocity and the projected axial force. Also, the projection of the force is found to be much more important in the rotor plane directions than in the streamwise direction. It is found that for the case of a wind turbine immersed in a realistic turbulent boundary-layer flow, the potential spurious numerical oscillations originating from sharp force projections are not harmful to the results. By comparing an advanced model which computes the non-uniform distribution of the turbine forces over the rotor with a simple model which assumes uniform effects of the turbine forces, it is found that both can lead to accurate results for the far wake flow and the thrust and power predictions. However, the comparison shows that the advanced model leads to better results for the near wake flow. In addition, it is found that the simple model overestimates the rotor velocity prediction in comparison to the advanced model. These elements are explained by the lack of local feedback between the axial velocity and the axial force in the simple model. By comparing simulations with and without including the effects of the nacelle and tower, it is found that the consideration of the nacelle and tower is relatively important both for the near wake and the power prediction, due to the shadow effects. The grid resolution is not found to be critical once a reasonable resolution is used, i.e. in the order of 10 grid points along each direction across the rotor. The comparison with the experimental data shows that an accurate prediction of the flow, thrust, and power is possible with a very reasonable computational cost. Overall, the results give important guidelines for the implementation of ADMs for LES.
Prediction of ground surface settlement induced by twin shield tunnellings in urban conditions
