Protestant Pioneers in Sanskrit Studies in the Early 18th Century

2016 ◽  
Vol 43 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 99-144
Author(s):  
Toon Van Hal
Keyword(s):  
Tamil Nadu ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Academic Discipline ◽  
Primary Concern ◽  
Unpublished Manuscript ◽  
Second Stage ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Early 18Th Century

Summary Sanskrit has played a notable role in the history of the language sciences. Its intensive study at the turn of the 19th century went hand in hand with the institutionalization of linguistics as an independent academic discipline. This paper endeavours to trace the earliest Sanskrit studies conducted by Protestant missionaries in Tranquebar (present-day Tharangambadi in Tamil Nadu) under the auspices of the Dänisch-Hallesche Mission from 1706 onwards. In contrast to some of their Jesuit colleagues, the Protestant missionaries did not leave us full-blown manuscript grammars. However, this does not imply that the Tranquebar missionaries had no interest in the sacred language of the Hindus. It was, of course, the primary concern of all missionaries to spread the word of Christ among the indigenous people. Hence, they placed an extremely high value on a firm command of the local vernacular languages. In the case of the Tranquebar missionaries, the study of both Portuguese and Tamil was, therefore, prioritized. In a second stage, however, many of the Tranquebar missionaries, once they had mastered the local vernaculars, gained interest in Sanskrit, which they frequently styled ‘Malabaric Latin’. Partly on the basis of unpublished manuscript sources, this paper (a) investigates why the Tranquebar missionaries were interested in Sanskrit in the first place, (b) surveys the numerous problems they had to overcome, and (c) studies their interaction with scholars working in Europe, from whom they received many incentives. In so doing, the paper investigates to what extent this 18th-century interest in Sanskrit reflects a fascination with the original traditional culture and religion of South India. In conjunction with this, the paper also examines to what extent this largely overlooked chapter in early Sanskrit philology may shed an indirect light on the specific role of Sanskrit in the institutionalization of linguistics.

scholarly journals AKAR DAN BUAH TEGALSARI: DINAMIKA SANTRI DAN KETURUNAN KIAI PESANTREN TEGALSARI PONOROGO

2021 ◽  
Vol 4 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-20
Author(s):  
Dawam Multazam
Keyword(s):  
Data Mining ◽  
Early Development ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Historical Research ◽  
The Past ◽  
Close Relationship ◽  
History Of ◽  
Early 18Th Century

Pesantren Tegalsari Ponorogo that was born in the early 18th century is considered to have an important role in the history of Islam in Nusantara. This Pesantren is even believed as the first boarding institution and was born in 1742. This article examines historically the forerunner and the early development of Pesantren Tegalsari. Then, the role of students and descendants of kiai. By using the method of historical research and data mining to written documents, interviews, and observations, it is concluded that Pesantren Tegalsari has a close relationship with the elite in the past such as the Wali Songo and the King of Majapahit. In addition, through the students and descendants of kiai, these schools also have a major role in society, both in the propagation of Islam as well as in politics.

scholarly journals Ontological Foundations of Conceptualization of Art Institutions

2021 ◽  
pp. 171-176
Author(s):  
Anna Luhovska
Keyword(s):  
New Technologies ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Economic Changes ◽  
Rapid Changes ◽  
Key Factor ◽  
History Of ◽  
Entire History ◽  
The Difference ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article describes the stages of formation and the main reasons for the transformation of the current art institutional system. Its characteristics, conventional to Europe at the end of the 18th century, became common to most countries by the second half of the 19th century. Globalization processes that accompany the entire history of the previous century are the key factor of the rapid changes in society, including the art sphere. The role of global economic changes with the orientation on the society of consumption, on the growing importance of art market, commercialization of culture in general, emergence of new technologies and changes in attitudes to contemporary art in all its manifestations were observed. The reasons for shifting the emphasis and rethinking the role of artist, curator and spectator in the modern mode of existence of art institutions were analyzed. The conditions for updating existing and new forms of art representation, as well as expanding the concept of an artwork and the difference in understanding its value in historical and commercial terms that do not always coincide, were described.

The Institutionalization of Philosophy: Victor Cousin and Hegel’s Legacy in France

2020 ◽  
Vol 30 (6) ◽  
pp. 145-172
Keyword(s):  
Educational Policy ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Institutional Arrangement ◽  
Philosophical Education ◽  
Meta Position ◽  
Political Forces ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

The article points out patterns in the institutionalization of philosophy during the first half of 19th century when French education was revamped by Victor Cousin and the school of eclecticism as part of the educational policy of the doctrinaire political faction. Cousin’s public statements and correspondence stating his views about how to properly conduct education in philosophy and what obligations that education had toward the political forces of the 1830s and 1840s are interpreted in the context of the structure of the French educational system, changes in the socio-political situation, the lingering influence of Jesuit colleges after they had been banned in the 18th century, the continuity of the administrative and personnel structure of secondary and higher schools, and the Napoleonic reforms. The main focus of the article is on how institutionalization influenced the spread of Hegelian studies and Hegelianism in France and on the inertia in the system that was introduced to maintain the canon of works and figures selected for France’s philosophers to study. The features of the French system of philosophical education that Cousin devised are analyzed, the role of the competitive agrégation in philosophy from the 19th to the 21st century is examined, and the advantages and problematic aspects of institutionalized philosophy are explained. The immediate conclusion reached is that Cousin’s educational policy had a direct and long-lasting impact on the development of Hegel studies and Hegelianism in France from the middle of the 19th century through the first third of the 20th century. That impact came in the form of a wide-ranging abandonment of translating, studying and teaching certain material, and the German idealist’s legacy was the most affected by it. The author also argues that this example reveals more than the role played by a person who pursued well-intentioned goals under particular circumstances with considerable success, although that success came at a cost for the study of the history of philosophy. The example illustrates how the outcome of philosophical studies depends on the institutional arrangement for training and selecting qualified consumers and producers of philosophical knowledge, and this brings up the question of the meta-position of philosophy.

scholarly journals The Formularies of Unity and the Dutch Reformed Church: A preliminary survey

1993 ◽  
Vol 27 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
R. M. Britz
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Dutch Reformed ◽  
Reformed Church ◽  
History Of ◽  
The One ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Sixth Decade ◽  
The Church ◽  
Dutch Reformed Church

This article undertakes a survey of the application of the Formularies of Unity by the Dutch Reformed Church, covering its history from the 18th century to approximately 1935. Although these Formularies were the accepted confessional basis of the church, it did not prevent additional theological accommodation during the 18th century. During the first part of the 19th century an institutional concept of the church put forward a subscribing formula. The confession became important. In principle the way was opened for an institutional and contractual enforcement of the Formu­laries. This happened when the church was involved in the wide-ranging li­beral struggle during the sixth decade. Even before the 20th century a new approach in which the role of the Formularies was seen more dogmatically and confessionalistically came to the fore. And, when the church was once again entangled in a struggle (viz. the well-known 'Du Plessis case' of the 1930's) the dogmatic point of departure played into the hands of a con­fessional fundamentalism. In the history of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Formularies thus gained in ecclesiological emphasis and value and its application was conditioned by the context and theological influence. Most importantly, the underlying problem of its historicity on the one hand, and its scriptural context and intent on the other hand, remained an unpaid account.

scholarly journals SEEING THE INVISIBLE. ANALYTICAL DRAWINGS BY CONSTRUCTION HISTORY PIONEERS. RESEARCH FIELD OVERVIEW

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (1) ◽  
pp. 03-18
Author(s):  
Javier Giron ◽  
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Research Field ◽  
General Picture ◽  
Visual Model ◽  
History Of Construction ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Subject ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Geographical Scope

Introduction: The history of construction is a discipline that began to take shape in the mid-18th century and throughout the 19th century. We as researchers need to pay particular attention to how drawing facilitated progress during this period. This article attempts to provide an overview of the above, which is currently lacking. Methods: In this study, two lines of investigation intersect: the history of construction and the history of drawing, specifically drawing for scientific and technical representation. The main goal is to identify the sources (authors, lines of investigation) relevant to this field, as well as to characterize the role of drawing in the authors’ work, and to describe the spread of drawing as nonverbal thinking. Results: We have identified a number of relevant authors, described their lines of research, and listed the functions fulfilled by drawing in each case. The functions include: hypothesizing about hidden structures, visualizing the construction processes, and providing a virtual definition for elements that make up a vault. We also review how some drawings acted as a visual model of the constructive reality, or how parallel drawings served as a reflection of the different buildings’ size and scale. Discussion: This overview adjusts some points of reference for a general picture. For having a complete understanding of the subject, it will be necessary to identify more sources and to extend the geographical scope of this search in the future. There is still much research to be done on the spread of the drawings in question.

scholarly journals Formation of large feudal property on Kumyk Plain of Dagestan from the 16th to the mid 18th centuries

2019 ◽  
pp. 14-17
Author(s):  
Takhmina Ch. Dzhabayeva
Keyword(s):  
Detailed Analysis ◽  
Land Tenure ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Land Ownership ◽  
Fourth Generation ◽  
Imperial Authority ◽  
The Family ◽  
History Of ◽  
Early 18Th Century

The article is devoted to a detailed analysis of the history of the formation of the feudal land ownership of the Kumyk princes of Dagestan, its features, the role of the family and clan factor. The caution and foresight of the Russian Tsarist authorities in establishing contacts with the rulers of Dagestan, including the Kumyk princes, is noted. In addition, data are provided on the formation of mutually benefi cial relations between the Kumyk princes of Dagestan and Russian power. It is noted that by 1722, the land on Kumyk Plain of Dagestan had already been in full ownership of the princely house. Later, the documents issued by the imperial authority only confi rmed and to a certain extent regulated the land tenure of the princes. The article concludes that long before the 18th century the lands of the Kumyks had been in hereditary possession of the Kumyk princes. In the fourth generation after Sultan Mut – the ancestor of the Kumyk princes – (approximately in the early 18th century) his lands were divided into allotments according to the number of princely clans who owned them together, not dividing them among themselves.

The Portrayal of Islam in Some Early Nigerian Newspapers (1880-1910)

1989 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 319-328
Author(s):  
Salahudeen Yusuf
Keyword(s):  
18Th Century ◽  
Religious Conflict ◽  
Intellectual Honesty ◽  
The People ◽  
Late 18Th Century ◽  
The Press ◽  
External Threat ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The Impact

The history of Islam in part of what is known today as Nigeria datesto about the loth Century. Christianity dates to the late 18th Century. Bythe middle of the 19th Century, when Nigerian newspapers began to appearon the streets of Nigeria, both religions had won so many followers and extendedto so many places in Nigeria that very few areas were untouched bytheir influence. The impact of both religions on their adherents not only determinedtheir spiritual life, but influenced their social and political lives aswell. It therefore became inevitable that both religions receive coverage frommost of the newspapers of the time. How the newspapers as media of informationand communication reported issues about the two religions is thetheme of this paper.Rationale for the StudyThe purpose of this study is to highlight the context in which such earlynewspapers operated and the factors that dictated their performance. Thisis because it is assumed that when a society faces external threat to its territory,culture, and independence, all hands (the press inclusive) ought tobe on deck to resist the threat with all might. Were newspapers used as verbalartillery and how did they present each religion? It is also assumed thatin a multireligious society a true press should be objective and serve as avanguard in the promotion of the interest of the people in general and notcreate or foster an atmosphere of religious conflict. The study also aims atfinding out whether the papers promoted intellectual honesty and fosteredthe spirit of unity particularly when the society was faced with the encroachmentof the British who posed a threat to their freedom, culture, economy ...

scholarly journals THE PROBLEM OF LAND MANAGEMENT TRADITIONS IN THE CURONIAN SPIT

2007 ◽  
Vol 31 (3) ◽  
pp. 140-148
Author(s):  
Jurgis Bučas
Keyword(s):  
Cultural Landscape ◽  
Wind Erosion ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Curonian Lagoon ◽  
Master Plan ◽  
Curonian Spit ◽  
Ecological Awareness ◽  
World Heritage List ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century

The Curonian Spit was inhabited six thousand years ago. During this period its survival was menaced by natural forces. The 17th–18th centuries faced unreasonable deforestation of the Curonian Spit and opened its dunes to wind erosion. In the 18th century 14 settlements were hid under moving sand. The Spit survival was in danger of being flown under the Curonian Lagoon waters. At the begining of the 19th century radical actions were taken to save the Curonian Spit damaged by wind erosion. Tremendous ecological awareness of some natural powers as wind and flora helped man to create a landscape which was described at UNESCO General Conference as a worldwide worth cultural heritage and enrolled in the World Heritage List as a cultural landscape of universal worth illustrating the history of dramatic coexistence of nature and man. The paper describes the Curonian Spit as a cultural landscape, its historical formation and present managment, discusses its creation and management traditions and evaluates them while preparing the Curonian Spit National Park managment plan as well as the Master Plan of Neringa city. Gamtosauginė direktyva ar kraštotvarkinės tradicijos ? Santrauka Kuršių nerijoje žmonės įsikūrė ketvirtajame tūkstantmetyje prieš Kristų. Visą istorinį laikotarpį pusiasaliui grėsmę kėlė gamtos jėgos. XVI-XVIII a. neapgalvotas nerijos miškų naikinimas atidengė pusiasalio smėlynus vėjo erozijai. XVIII a. smėliu užpustyta 14 gyvenviečių. Kilo grėsmė, kad ir pats pusiasalis bus nupustytas į Kuršių marias. Pasitinkant XIX a., imtasi radikalių priemonių gelbėti vėjo erozijos naikinamą Kuršių neriją. Su didžiule ekologine išmintimi panaudodamas pačios gamtos jėgą (vėją) ir medžiagą (augalus), per XIX a. supustyto jūros smėlio kopose žmogus sukūrė kraštovaizdį, kuris UNESCO Generalinės konferencijos buvo įvardytas pasaulio reikšmės nekilnojamojo kultūros paveldo vertybe ir įrašytas į Pasaulio paveldo sąrašą kaip universalios reikšmės kultūrinis kraštovaizdis, iliustruojantis gamtos ir žmogaus dramatiško sambūvio istoriją. Nagrinėjama Kuršių nerijos kultūrinio kraštovaizdžio istorinio formavimo ir dabartinio jo tvarkymo veikla, aptariamos jo kūrimo bei priežiūros tradicijos ir kaip jos vertinimos rengiant Kuršių nerijos nacionalinio parko tvarkymo planą bei Neringos miesto savivaldybės bendrąjį planą.

scholarly journals The dramatization of the Holy Week in Švėkšna church in the first half of the 19th century

Menotyra ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Asta Giniūnienė
Keyword(s):  
19Th Century ◽  
Old Testament ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Complicated Structure ◽  
Adam And Eve ◽  
Death Of Jesus ◽  
History Of ◽  
Church Art ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
First Time

The article for the first time analyses the decoration parts of the Christ’s tomb of the second halfof the 18th century found a few years ago in Švėkšna church. The Christ’s tomb from the oldchurch was transferred to the  new church, which was built in 1804 and used until the  4thdecade of the 19th century. On the basis of the sources and remained fragments we can statethat this was a complicated structure of the Paschal decoration designed under the Europeanbaroque scenery principles. It was composed of the paintings on boards and canvas and mis-cellaneous accessories. The  Christ’s tomb paintings are characterised by a  symbolic allegoriccontent and artistry. The prophets of the Old Testament and characters the New Testamentreflecting the Paschal Triduum liturgy were depicted in the decoration. The survived outlinepaintings of Adam and Eve in Paradise, Noah waiting for the Saviour, and Angels Lamentingover the Death of Jesus are the exceptional iconography images in the Lithuanian church art.The decorations of the Christ’s tomb were created by the professional masters who decoratedthe churches in Samogitia in the second part of the 18th century. The images of suffering anddead Jesus used in the figuration of the Paschal Triduum influenced the spread of the Passionscenes. This is supported by an interesting archival fact about the shrine with a group of sculp-tures depicting the tomb of Christ in the Švėkšna churchyard.The fragments of the Paschal decorations in the Švėkšna church are important baroque scen-ery exhibits, which are valuable for the history of the Lithuanian church art and scenography.The investigation of the Holy Week figuration in the Švėkšna church is a valuable illustrationof this multidimensional cultural, religious and artistic phenomenon.

scholarly journals Considerations to some forms of the verb a fi: sum and sunt

Diacronia ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Chivu
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Writing ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the verbal forms sum and sunt, introduced into the literary writing by the Transylvanian Latinist School, reveals a winding process in the elaboration of certain cultured norms proper to the modern literary Romanian. Not at all linear, this process was concurrently influenced by two, often divergent, tendencies that were active from the end of the 18th century up to the beginning of the 20th century: the use of some cultured forms, borrowed from Latin or created according to Latin patterns; and the revitalization of certain linguistic forms with regional diffusion. Initially proposed as literary pronunciations, the two verbal forms were soon adopted and used as etymological graphic forms that corresponded to sîm and suntu from certain conservative patois. During the second half of the 19th century (sum), and during the first decades of the 20th century (sunt), the two graphic forms became orthoepic norms as well, due to the phonological tradition of the Romanian writing.

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