Artificial Languages

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alan Reed Libert
Keyword(s):  
21St Century ◽  
A Priori ◽  
International Communication ◽  
A Posteriori ◽  
Natural Languages ◽  
Personal Projects ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
Artificial Languages ◽  
The Past ◽  
Mixed Languages

Artificial languages—languages which have been consciously designed—have been created for more than 900 years, although the number of them has increased considerably in recent decades, and by the early 21st century the total figure probably was in the thousands. There have been several goals behind their creation; the traditional one (which applies to some of the best-known artificial languages, including Esperanto) is to make international communication easier. Some other well-known artificial languages, such as Klingon, have been designed in connection with works of fiction. Still others are simply personal projects. A traditional way of classifying artificial languages involves the extent to which they make use of material from natural languages. Those artificial languages which are created mainly by taking material from one or more natural languages are called a posteriori languages (which again include well-known languages such as Esperanto), while those which do not use natural languages as sources are a priori languages (although many a posteriori languages have a limited amount of a priori material, and some a priori languages have a small number of a posteriori components). Between these two extremes are the mixed languages, which have large amounts of both a priori and a posteriori material. Artificial languages can also be classified typologically (as natural languages are) and by how and how much they have been used. Many linguists seem to be biased against research on artificial languages, although some major linguists of the past have been interested in them.

scholarly journals Supernatural Characters in the Quasi-Historical Discourse of Modern Ukrainian Literature: Specificity and Functions

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 49-63
Author(s):  
Oleksandra Nikolova ◽  
Kateryna Vasylyna
Keyword(s):  
21St Century ◽  
Historical Novels ◽  
Historical Discourse ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
Global Problem ◽  
The Past ◽  
Public Consciousness ◽  
Historical Past ◽  
The Early 21St Century

: The article is aimed at the study of Ukrainian quasi-historical novels of the early 21st century, characterized by the renunciation of “objectivity” of the narrative and emphasized the role of imagination. These are the pieces by Bakalets and Yarish (“From the Seventh Bottom”), Vynnychuk (“The Pharmacist”, “Lutetia”), and by Yatsenko (“Nechui. Nemov. Nebach”). The study reveals the features and functions of fantastic characters in the abovementioned novels. These fictional images of modern Ukrainian quasihistorical literary discourse are characterized by infernality, grotesque anthropomorphism, destruction of traditional antinomy “otherworldly– earthly/human”, philosophical and ironic coloring. Interpreting the fantasy in quasi-historical novels is expedient in the context of the global problem of perception of historical past by people of the 21st Century, with an emphasis on significant changes in public consciousness motivating writers to “Re-write/Reimagine the past”. The spread of this phenomenon reveals public distrust of the authorities, offering “correct” answers to the questions about past events, protest against permanent manipulation of historical facts (the tendency of growing consciousness and intellectualization of society).

scholarly journals The meaning of Moscow: “Non-lethal” weapons and international law in the early 21st century

2005 ◽  
Vol 87 (859) ◽  
pp. 525-552 ◽  
Author(s):  
David P. Fidler
Keyword(s):  
International Law ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Terrorist Attack ◽  
International Humanitarian Law ◽  
Humanitarian Law ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
The Early 21St Century

AbstractAt the intersection of new weapon technologies and international humanitarian law, so-called “non-lethal” weapons have become an area of particular interest. This article analyses the relationship between “non-lethal” weapons and international law in the early 21st century by focusing on the most seminal incident to date in the short history of the “non-lethal” weapons debate, the use of an incapacitating chemical to end a terrorist attack on a Moscow theatre in October 2002. This tragic incident has shown that rapid technological change will continue to stress international law on the development and use of weaponry but in ways more politically charged, legally complicated and ethically challenging than the application of international humanitarian law in the past.

scholarly journals A Joint Manifesto for Design Studios based on Residuals and Experiences

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hare Kılıçaslan ◽  
Pınar Dinç Kalaycı
Keyword(s):  
21St Century ◽  
Design Education ◽  
Thinking Skills ◽  
Linear Process ◽  
Architectural Education ◽  
Design Knowledge ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
Restructuring Process ◽  
The Universe

Architectural education encompasses different approaches from past to present; it is continuously researched and is both vocational and personality training. An updated manifesto for the current era is essential to ensure that the design approaches and tools updated by the boundless opportunities presented by the 21st century do not overwhelm the proven principles from the past. In the early 21st century, the restructuring process of architectural education is being reawakened through unique education approaches. The studio that constitutes the backbone of design education must also produce the manifesto. Manifesto principles that express the approaches related to the stages and are fictionalised through binary propositions need to provide a paradigm that exceeds a linear process for the studio environment. The proposition for all actors of the design process and learning programmes is based on an independent configuration in which studios focus on learners. Manifestos need to be renewed as long as the epoch is flourishing, while concerns about the internalisation of design knowledge and ways of thinking, skills, and experiences exist. The present manifesto is also a future building block. To rest studio manifestos on a joint manifesto similar to one proposed in this text, because of renewed and diversified practices, it is necessary to maintain an architectural education that does not lose itself and people within the universe of infinite possibilities.

Online Comments and Journalism

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. David Wolfgang
Keyword(s):  
Technological Change ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Public Discourse ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
Participatory Journalism ◽  
Online Comments ◽  
New Evidence ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Constant Growth

Shortly after its emergence as a tool for participatory journalism, online commenting became a popular format for audience public discourse and a subject of controversy for professional journalists. The early 21st century has seen a constant growth in research considering how online comments have influenced journalism by providing new ways to understand the perspective of the audience, by changing the routines and practices of the newsroom, and by encouraging a reconsideration of how content influences readers. News audiences, generally, have been relatively quiet and passive in the past, but online comments have given them the opportunity to speak alongside journalists on professional platforms. This shift in news-mediated public discourse has the potential to reshape the journalist−audience relationship in substantial ways. The research on commenting has provided new evidence on how journalistic practices are changing, how people perceive and process information online, and how journalists negotiate technological change while trying not to upend the profession. However, there is a need for more research that explores critical questions related to comment quality, changing journalistic norms, and the relationship between journalist identity and technology. Online commenting has the potential to help fulfill the journalistic norms of providing a space for public discourse and promoting diverse views from within the community. This potential, however, is reliant upon journalists who uphold the civic function of journalism’s role.

Heritage and the Use of the Past in East Africa

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Giblin
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Cultural Production ◽  
Heritage Management ◽  
Eastern Africa ◽  
Political Elites ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
Heritage Studies ◽  
Critical Heritage

This article outlines historical and ongoing uses of the past and academic heritage research into those activities within eastern Africa. The use of the past will be discussed as a deep historical practice in the area that is the EAC in the 21st century, demonstrating how political elites have constructed versions of the past to suit contemporary and future aims for hundreds of years. Then there is an outline of the colonial introduction of formalized Western heritage institutions and legislation in the early 20th century, the subsequent nationalization of these in the mid-20th century, and the late-20th- and early-21st-century internationalization of heritage. These overviews are followed by a discussion of different approaches to heritage research including early studies of museums, traditions, heritage management, archaeological introspections, and more recent “critical heritage studies,” which interrogate the use of the past as a form of cultural production.

Current declines of Pecos River (New Mexico, USA) streamflow in a 700-year context

The Holocene ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 28 (5) ◽  
pp. 767-777 ◽  
Author(s):  
Grant L Harley ◽  
Justin T Maxwell
Keyword(s):  
New Mexico ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Full Range ◽  
Low Flow ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
Streamflow Reconstruction ◽  
The Past ◽  
Resource Managers ◽  
Pecos River ◽  
N 93

The Pecos River provides an important source of water for New Mexico and Texas, US, and Mexico. Severe and prolonged drought combined with increasing temperatures during the early 21st century boosted attention on water resources and allocation management in the American West. We provide a tree-ring-based streamflow reconstruction for the Pecos River for the period 1310–2013 CE for the overarching purpose of placing the current Pecos River streamflow declines in a multi-century context. Over the past ca. 700 years, dry events ( n = 93) that lasted at least 2 years were more common than wet events ( n = 76), wherein flow was below/above the instrumental mean (61.6 m3 s−1). Although more prolonged droughts occurred during the 15th and 18th centuries, the gage record (1930–2013 CE) captures the full range and variability of flow extremes within the context of the past 700 years. The 11-year drought of 1772–1782 was the highest ranked based on magnitude + intensity below the instrumental mean, slightly edging out the 1415–1425 and 1950–1957 events. The driest events that have occurred from the 14th through the 20th centuries are challenged by flow conditions since the turn of the 21st century. The 2000–2006 and 2011–2013 dry periods ranked 6th and 13th, respectively, though the intensity (−40 m3 s−1 yr−1) of the 2011–2013 event exceeded all higher ranked droughts. The lowest single water-year flow in the reconstruction was shared by years 1904 and 2002, during which the flow of the Pecos River was estimated at 8.1 m3 s−1. Other extreme low-flow years were 1685 (9.5 m3 s−1) and 1579 (9.8 m3 s−1), but are eclipsed by 1904 and 2002 when considering the lower bounds of bootstrapped confidence limits of the reconstruction. Increased flow variability combined with projected increased temperatures and decreased precipitation will likely present new challenges to water resource managers, especially given impending anthropogenic climate change.

A POSTERIORI RATEMAKING WITH PANEL DATA

2014 ◽  
Vol 44 (3) ◽  
pp. 587-612 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jean-Philippe Boucher ◽  
Rofick Inoussa
Keyword(s):  
Panel Data ◽  
A Priori ◽  
Automobile Insurance ◽  
Insurance Company ◽  
A Posteriori ◽  
Numerical Illustration ◽  
Section Data ◽  
The Past ◽  
Car Insurance ◽  
Insurance Data

AbstractRatemaking is one of the most important tasks of non-life actuaries. Usually, the ratemaking process is done in two steps. In the first step, a priori ratemaking, an a priori premium is computed based on the characteristics of the insureds. In the second step, called the a posteriori ratemaking, the past claims experience of each insured is considered to the a priori premium and set the final net premium. In practice, for automobile insurance, this correction is usually done with bonus-malus systems, or variations on them, which offer many advantages. In recent years, insurers have accumulated longitudinal information on their policyholders, and actuaries can now use many years of informations for a single insured. For this kind of data, called panel or longitudinal data, we propose an alternative to the two-step ratemaking approach and argue this old approach should no longer be used. As opposed to a posteriori models of cross-section data, the models proposed in this paper generate premiums based on empirical results rather than inductive probability. We propose a new way to deal with bonus-malus systems when panel data are available. Using car insurance data, a numerical illustration using at-fault and non-at-fault claims of a Canadian insurance company is included to support this discussion. Even if we apply the model for car insurance, as long as another line of business uses past claim experience to set the premiums, we maintain that a similar approach to the model proposed should be used.

Monosyllabisme Originel, Fiction Et Reconstruction

Diachronica ◽  
1991 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 17-44
Author(s):  
Guy Jucquois
Keyword(s):  
Complex System ◽  
Original System ◽  
International Communication ◽  
Natural Languages ◽  
Linguistic Study ◽  
Linear Evolution ◽  
Artificial Languages ◽  
Origin Of Language ◽  
Eine Verbesserte

SUMMARY The monosyllablic character of language is often presented as reflecting its original trait. This tendency seems to underlie much of the earlier conceptions of the origin of language as well as the more recent glottogonic theories, in which, with variations, an original system of monosyllabic cries ('calls') is hypothesized which evolves, parallel with humanity, into a more complex system of communication. This view reappears in the so-called 'constructed' or artificial languages whose goal it has been to facilitate international communication through a simplified system. Finally, in the reconstructed natural languages, the procedures usually lead to the hypostatization of an initial monosyllabic root. In the different sectors of linguistic study, it appears that a linear evolution from the simple to the complex is regularly implied, which finds its expression in the passage of language structures from an original monosyllabism to a subsequent polysyllabism. RÉSUMÉ Le caractere monosyllabique du langage est souvent presente comme etant un trait originel. Cette tendance se vérifie aussi bien dans les conceptions du passé sur les origines du langage que dans les theories contemporaines ou on pose toujours, avec des variantes, un systeme originel de cris monosyllabiques se complexifiant ensuite, parallélement avec l'évolution humaine. Cette conception se retrouve egalement dans les langues constitutes et artificielles dont le but explicite serait une communication meilleure, mais plus simplifiee entre les hommes. Enfin, dans les langues reconstruites, naturelles, les procédures aboutissent, pour des families de langues fort diverses, à poser un mono-syllabisme radical initial. Dans les différents secteurs des études linguistiques, on semble toujours supposer une évolution linéaire, du simple au complexe, qui s'exprimerait par le passage d'un monosyllabisme premier à un polysyl-labisme secondaire. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die einsilbige Beschaffenheit der Sprache wird oft als die ursprüngliche dargestellt. Die Neigung bestäigt sich sowohl in den fruheren Vorstellungen vom Sprachursprung als auch in den heutigen glottogonischen Theorien, in denen man stets — mit Abwandlungen — mit einem ursprunglichen System monosyllabischer Schreie operiert, die anschließend komplexer werden, und zwar parallel zur Entwicklung der Menschheit. Diese Auffassung findet sich ebenfalls in den konstruierten und küinstlichen Sprachen, deren ausdrückliches Ziel eine verbesserte, wenngleich weit vereinfachte, Kommunikation unter den Menschen ist. Schlieélich, was die rekonstruierten natürlichen Sprachen an-geht, so nimmt man am Ende immer an — und zwar in den verschiedenartigsten Sprachen —, daG eine ursprunglich einsilbige Wurzel anzusetzen sei. In den verschiedensten Sparten der Sprachforschung scheint man immer noch eine geradlinige Entwicklung vom Einfachen zum Komplexen anzusetzen, die ihren Ausdruck in der Annahme eines primaren Monosyllabismus findet, der anschließend in einen Polysyllabismus mündet.

Dangerous Pursuits: Mediumship, Mind, and Music by Stephen E. Braude

2020 ◽  
Vol 34 (4) ◽  
pp. 875-881
Author(s):  
Hoyt Edge
Keyword(s):  
21St Century ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Excellent Work

Stephen Braude is the most prolific of the late 20th and early 21st century philosophers writing about parapsychogy, and his work in the philosophical aspects of parapsychology has been the most influential in this field for the past several decades.  This book encompasses both philosophical issues in parapsychology, as well as studies in spontaneous and mediumistic investigations, and this collection spans the spectrum of his interests, including jazz. His title is an apt warning about the dangers to academics pursuing work in parapsychology; however, some suspicion towards those of us in the field can be mitigated if one produces excellent work in the field of one’s doctorate before tenure decisions, as Braude did. Dangerous Pursuits is composed of previously published articles or book chapters, but they are usually substantially rewritten in a way that makes these chapters accessible to a wide range of people, not only academics.  Although the book is not divided into sections, the chapters are nevertheless arranged skillfully to focus, after an opening chapter on the fear of psi, a topic that Braude returns to throughout the book, on physical mediumship, then more generally on mediumship, and finally on more theoretical topics, with a coda on jazz. 

Guqin Playing Now: Re-inventing the Past as a Creative Way of Sustaining an Instrumental Practice

2021 ◽  
pp. 21-34
Author(s):  
Hoh Chung Shih
Keyword(s):  
Popular Music ◽  
21St Century ◽  
Performance Practice ◽  
Music Performance ◽  
Cultural Practice ◽  
Music Notation ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
The Past ◽  
Music Making ◽  
Over Time

Guqin (古琴) music, a cultural practice of the Classical Chinese literati which survived and had seen a surge of interest globally in the early 21st century, can be understood as an interactive whole consisting of the instrument and the performer. The musical interface, its music notation focuses heavily on the instrumental spatial-motor relationship with the performer, with sound as product of this psychosomatic interaction. This paper will examine the various layers of this interaction between: a) notation and movement and sound; b) topography of instrument body and physicality of performers’ hand on it; c) physicality and psychology of performance, leading to questions of musicality, authenticity in expression, and intentions or functions of guqin music. By comparing particular works (such as 山居吟 and 潇湘水云) across score collections from different periods (such as 神奇秘谱 1425, 大还阁琴谱 1673, 五知斋琴谱1722), and highlighting certain peculiar fingering position and combinations in earlier music against recent transcriptions of popular music, I will raise questions on possible musical purposes and expressions in relation to the proposed performer-instrument interaction perspective, so as to further understand the evolving nature of this music making over time. This creative interaction in sonic terms as sound and as music, performance practice and musical expression as culture and aesthetics, are some aspects of what I wish to present on an ongoing reinvention of guqin as instrument and music.

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