Architecture of Monasteries

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sheila Bonde ◽  
Clark Maines
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Integrated Approach ◽  
Medieval Architecture ◽  
Early 21St Century ◽  
Architectural Analysis ◽  
Monastic Reform ◽  
Form Of Life ◽  
Monastic Architecture ◽  
Strategic Role

The idea of withdrawal from secular society was central to the notions of monasticism and monastic architecture. The word derives from μόνος (mónos, Greek for ‘alone’). Christian monasticism made its first traceable appearances at the end of the 3rd century in Egypt and Palestine, though we know little of its architecture at this early stage. The eremitic ideal of the solitary saint retained its appeal, but was soon complemented by cenobitic monasticism where likeminded male or female ascetics joined together in communities that built architecture that was used in common. Monasticism as a religious form of life is found in Buddhism, Islam, and other traditions, though this essay will emphasize the medieval West, where monasteries were popular beginning in the 5th century. The various orders or congregations formulated differing architectural responses to their needs. The 9th-century Plan of Saint Gall, for example, represents an ideal meant to inspire emulation. Some monasteries were designed only for their resident populations of monks or nuns, while others might accommodate lay brothers or sisters, serfs, parish communities, visiting pilgrims, or dignitaries. A number of cathedrals across Europe were in fact monastic, following most often the Augustinian rule. The cenobitic monastery typically provided spaces for worship (church), sleeping (dormitory), dining (refectory), and meeting (chapter house) for the resident community, as well as buildings for reception and accommodation of visitors and other more functional structures (stables, storage barns, forges, mills, etc.). Monastic communities varied in size and might be very small or quite large. Some were found near or within urban locations, while others commanded large agricultural lands, including dependent parishes and granges. A survey of monastic architecture must therefore include industrial and hydraulic structures such as mills and dams, storage structures such as barns, dependent priory and farm buildings, and buildings for the care of the sick and infirm. Bibliography on monastic architecture is often divided regionally, and often focuses upon the church rather than the entire complex. Scholarship has privileged the architecture of certain orders—Cluniac Benedictines, Cistercians, and Franciscans, for example—over the more than five hundred monastic orders and congregations that once existed during the European Middle Ages. Archival research, architectural analysis, and archaeology are all contributing to a broader picture of the range and diversity of monastic architecture for male, female, and double houses. Traditional approaches to medieval architecture and its decoration have been primarily formalist, anchoring stylistic observations upon church records read as building documents in order to establish chronologies. While this approach remains important, new approaches such as stone-for-stone recording, C-14 dating of lime mortar and plaster, and dendrochronology, as well as the scientific study of painted layers and 3D modeling, are reshaping the history of medieval buildings. Together with archaeological analysis, early-21st-century work is examining the longer and more complicated cultural biographies of buildings and sites. This more integrated approach has recognized that architecture is not merely a reflection of monastic reform, but rather plays a strategic role in shaping it.

Use of an Integrated Approach for Analysis and Design of Turbocharged Internal Combustion Engine

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thiago Ebel ◽  
Mark Anderson ◽  
Parth Pandya ◽  
Mat Perchanok ◽  
Nick Tiney ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Internal Combustion Engine ◽  
Combustion Engine ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Pressure Ratio ◽  
Integrated Approach ◽  
Internal Combustion ◽  
Operating Conditions ◽  
Dynamics Simulation ◽  
Analysis And Design ◽  
Performance Requirements

Abstract When developing a turbocharged internal combustion engine, the choice of turbocharger is usually based on designer experience and existing hardware. However, proper turbocharger design relies on matching the compressor and turbine performance to the engine requirements so that parameters such as boost and back pressure, compressor pressure ratio, and turbine inlet temperatures meet the needs of the engine without exceeding its allowable operating envelope. Therefore, the ultimate measure of a successful turbocharger design is how well it is matched to an engine across various operating conditions. This, in turn, determines whether a new turbocharger is required, or an existing solution can be used. When existing turbocharger solutions are not viable, the engine designer is at a loss on how to define a new turbocharger that meets the desired performance requirements. A common approach in industry has been to scale the performance of an existing turbocharger (compressor and turbine maps) and take these requirements for Original Equipment Manufacturers to possibly match it with a real machine. However, the assumptions made in a basic scaling process are quite simplistic and generally not satisfactory in this situation. A better approach would be to use a validated meanline model for a compressor and turbine instead, allowing to perform an actual preliminary design of such components. Such approach allows to link the engine performance requirements in a very early stage of te component design project and it guides the designer for the design decisions, such as rotor size, variable geometry nozzles, diameter, or shroud trims and others. Therefore, a feasible solution is more likely with design less iterations. This paper describes a methodology for an integrated approach to design and analyze a turbocharged internal combustion engine using commercially available state-of-the-art 1D gas dynamics simulation tool linked to two powerful turbomachinery meanline programs. The outputs of this analysis are detailed performance data of the engine and turbocharger at different engine operating conditions. Two case studies are then presented for a 10-liter diesel truck engine. The first study demonstrates how the programs are used to evaluate an existing engine and reverse engineer an existing turbocharger based only on the available performance maps. Then a second study is done using a similar approach but redesigning a new turbocharger (based on the reverse engineered one) for an increased torque output of the same engine.

scholarly journals A plea against over specialisation in forensic psychiatry

1992 ◽  
Vol 16 (7) ◽  
pp. 439-442 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eric F. Mendelson
Keyword(s):  
Forensic Psychiatry ◽  
Psychiatric Care ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Integrated Approach ◽  
Integrated System ◽  
Forensic Patients ◽  
Secure Care ◽  
Regional Service ◽  
Forensic Psychiatric ◽  
Special Responsibility

The optimal system for delivering forensic psychiatric care has yet to be established. At an early stage, Gunn (1977) drew attention to the differing models of a ‘parallel’ service and an ‘integrated’ approach. Only with the integrated system do forensic patients pass to ordinary NHS facilities when they no longer require security or other specialist expertise. The debate can be extended into whether forensic services should be provided by regional units, by district services, or by a mixture of both. Indeed, the Royal College of Psychiatrists (1988) recognised that in addition to a regional service led by a fully trained forensic psychiatrist, secure care can be provided at a district level by consultants who have sufficient training to hold posts with a special responsibility. Furthermore, managers are understandably keen for as much as possible to be provided by their own district services.

The Advantages of Integrating Major Hazard Safety and Impact Assessments for Pipeline Projects

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Glenn Pettitt ◽  
Shana Westfall
Keyword(s):  
Crude Oil ◽  
Risk Reduction ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Integrated Approach ◽  
Petroleum Products ◽  
Mitigation Measures ◽  
Project Design ◽  
Pipeline System ◽  
Pipeline Project ◽  
Major Accident

During many years of working on oil and gas pipeline projects, the authors have experienced many occasions where safety and environmental professionals on the same project have conducted assessments without using an integrated approach, often to the detriment of the project. This ‘siloed’ behaviour is evident in the way that safety and environmental teams are often assembled at different times and have little to no interaction. An Environmental, Social and Health Impact Assessment (ESHIA) is used as a key mechanism to identify potential adverse consequences from a pipeline project in terms of unwanted impacts to fauna and flora and local communities. Simultaneously, major hazard studies are carried out for a pipeline project to identify major accident hazards risks to adjacent communities or at above ground installations (AGIs), usually from flammable events due to the transport of natural gas, crude oil or petroleum products. Both the ESHIA and the major accident hazards processes will identify appropriate prevention, control and mitigation measures to reduce the risk from the pipeline system and to manage the potential adverse consequences in the unlikely event of a major accident. Within the scope of many ESHIAs prepared now, there is an assessment of environmental and social impacts from ‘unplanned events’, which essentially are those major hazard events with the potential to cause multiple injuries or fatalities to people in the local community or at AGIs. As such events are likely to have a major consequence to the environment, particularly in the case of crude oil and petroleum products releases, it makes sense for such events to be studied by both safety and environmental professionals using an integrated approach. Such an integrated approach requires collaboration between various professionals from an early point within a project, as there are several different aspects with a pipeline project that will require the assessment of key personnel. For a pipeline project in the design stages, the main points for consideration are as follows: • Construction of the pipeline system, with major disruptions to the local environment from the construction itself (line pipe and AGIs) and due to the logistical requirements (traffic movements, movements of personnel and construction camps, moving major equipment across the world). • Operation of the pipeline system, with potential adverse impacts due to a loss of containment, as has been shown by many accidents in the past (e.g. Ref 1, 2). The key issue here is that the initiating events often remain the same, certainly with regard to operations where the initiating event will be a loss of containment. There may be adverse consequences to people, the biological environment and the physical environment, depending on the location and nature of the incident. For this reason joint participation in the hazard identification (HAZID) process by key safety, social and environmental professionals is considered beneficial to a pipeline project to ensure all potential initiators are included. In this case, the HAZID process would also include an environmental impact identification (ENVID), rather than conducting both processes separately. A major advantage of conducting an integrated approach is the potential cost-savings. By bringing together technical safety and environmental professionals at an early stage of pipeline project design, there is the potential to avoid ‘doubling-up’ on potential issues, as well as conducting two parallel processes that have many similarities. Perhaps more significantly, many potential adverse consequences (environmental, social and safety) can be prevented, controlled or mitigated through their early consideration during project design. Hence, by bringing together these different technical view-points at an early stage of pipeline system design, potential risk reduction options that would be beneficial to people and the environment may be identified. If ESHIA considerations and major accident hazard studies are evaluated in parallel during the early stages of a project (e.g. Appraise or Select), a pipeline project will have more available options to prevent potential impacts. As prevention of hazards is generally more cost-effective than designing in control and mitigation measures (for recovery of an incident), this will have a critical financial benefit. Furthermore, early changes to project design are generally far less costly than changes in the latter stages of a pipeline project; hence, early identification of prevention and risk reduction may be hugely beneficial.

St Sabas and the Palestinian Monastic Network under Crusader Rule

2012 ◽  
Vol 14 ◽  
pp. 9-19
Author(s):  
Andrew Jotischky
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Fourth Century ◽  
Fifth Century ◽  
Seventh Century ◽  
Holy Land ◽  
Cultural Changes ◽  
Monastic Reform ◽  
Early Christian ◽  
Documentary Sources ◽  
Byzantine Period

The monastery founded in the fifth century by St Sabas, in the Kidron Valley a few kilometres south-east of Bethlehem, has been described as ‘the crucible of Byzantine Orthodoxy’. The original cave cell occupied by Sabas himself grew into a monastic community of the laura type, in which monks lived during the week in individual cells practising private prayer and craft work, but met for communal liturgy on Saturdays, Sundays and feast days. The laura, which differed from the coenobium in the greater emphasis placed on individual meditation, prayer and work, was the most distinctive contribution of the Palestinian tradition to early Christian monasticism. The first laura had been founded in the Judean desert in the fourth century by Chariton, and cenobitic monasteries had been in existence in Palestine both in the desert and on the coastal strip since the same period. Nevertheless, partly as a result of an extensive network of contacts with other foundations, both laurae and cenobitic monasteries, partly through Sabas s own fame as an ascetic, and partly through a burgeoning reputation for theological orthodoxy, St Sabas became the representative institution of Palestinian monasticism in the period between the fifth century and the Persian invasion of 614. The monastery’s capacity to withstand the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century, and to adapt to the cultural changes brought by Arabicization, ensured not only its survival but also its continued importance as a disseminator of monastic practice throughout the early Middle Ages. In 1099, when the first crusaders conquered the Holy Land, it was almost the sole survivor of the ‘golden age’ of Palestinian desert monasticism of the early Byzantine period. The monastery continued to prosper under crusader rule. It was an important landowner and its abbot was in the twelfth century a confrater of the Knights Hospitaller. Moreover, it is clear both from varied genres of external documentary sources – for example, pilgrimage accounts and hagiographies – and from the surviving manuscripts produced in the monastery between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, that the monastery’s spiritual life also flourished in this period. The role of St Sabas and Palestinian monasticism within the broader scope of Byzantine monastic reform of the eleventh and twelfth centuries suggests that the continuing function of the monastery at the centre of a wider network of practices and ideals across the Orthodox world engendered a revival of early monastic practices in a period more often associated with decline and the struggle to preserve the integrity of monastic life.

Religious Verse in French Neo-Latin Poetry until the Death of Francis I And Marguerite of Navarre

1991 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 171-186
Author(s):  
I. D. McFarlane
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
General Trend ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Lyric Poetry ◽  
Latin Poetry ◽  
Religious Poetry ◽  
Religious Verse ◽  
The Reformation ◽  
Francis I

Religious poetry inevitably echoes the traditions and trends that are evident in the period. At first there are authors who followed paths that persisted well after the beginning of the sixteenth century, but pre-Reformation and Reformation attitudes were bound to mirror themselves among the writers, both in the vernacular and neo-Latin poetry. The ideas of the Reformation affect the neo-Latin poets especially during the 1530s, but they form, as it were, a bulge in the main current, modifying form and themes, but by the end of the period, conservative attitudes have re-established themselves. Neo-Latin may have benefited from the circumstances: Latin has some resonance beyond the frontiers as well as at home, and Protestant thinkers were not as hostile to the classics as may be assumed. There was perhaps a tendency—I will not say more—for censorship to be more lenient to a language that was not accessible to the menu peuple; and humanism, often associated with the new religious ideas, was open at an early stage to neo-classical and classical fashions. It is well known that the ‘lyric’ Horace, not popular at the closing of the Middle Ages, came first through the neo-Latin poets rather than through the Pléiade and its precursors. Horace was not unfamiliar to authors, even in the 1510s, though it was during the 1530s that his lyric poetry was familiar to poets, many of whom came to see what his metres could do for the psalm paraphrasts. In the 1520s or early 1530s, when the Sorbonne’s influence was mitigated, if not entirely reduced, this coincided with the growing interest in Erasmus and the themes he popularized. Regional centres acquired more vigour than Paris; in any case, pedagogic movement fostered the exchange of ideas. This does not mean a general trend towards Reformation in all neo-Latin circles; it is too simple to divide persons and attitudes by locations: many places had conservative attitudes and advanced views. Some Protestants fled to Geneva and beyond; here and there, authors did not publish all they had written in their lifetime; some were floaters whose thinking was affected by the passage of time or circumstance; for a few, discretion was the better part of valour, and one cannot trust literally what was said at any particular moment. And documents and printings suffered from the ravages of time and fortune.

Nationalism and Architecture: The Creation of a National Style in Serbian Architecture and Its Political Implications

1997 ◽  
Vol 56 (1) ◽  
pp. 16-41 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bratislav Pantelić
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
National Policy ◽  
Medieval Architecture ◽  
Political Implications ◽  
Romantic Era ◽  
Church Building ◽  
Byzantine Architecture ◽  
National Monuments ◽  
National Survival ◽  
Definition Of

From the mid-nineteenth century until the late 1930s the dominant architectural mode in Serbia was a local historicist style termed Serbo-Byzantine. At first it was used only for churches but was soon extended to schools and then to all types of buildings. Although mostly based on academic revivalist forms, this idiom, which purportedly drew its inspiration from Balkan medieval architecture, did, on occasion, display distinctly local characteristics. Although part of a pan-European trend. Serbian historicism was detached from architectural developments elsewhere. Unlike other Romantic-era revivalist movements. Serbo-Byzantine architecture was not sponsored for its picturesque or romantic qualities but above all for its symbolism. It was widely believed that forms derived from the national monuments of the Middle Ages symbolized Serbian statehood and contained ethnic and religious attributes representative of the Serbian nation. Architecture in Serbia was thus primarily a means for articulating national policy and a powerful instrument for maintaining the national and religious unity of a widely separated group of people. Ideologists of the national program even believed that the definition of a style particular to the Serbs was a matter of national survival. Such political bias was conditioned by ethnic and territorial disputes among the various ethnic groups in the Balkan dominions of the Hapsburg and Ottoman empires. After 1945 the new Communist authorities proscribed historicism as nationalistic and promoted a utilitarian brand of nonornamental architecture which contained no national overtones. Serbian historicism, however, demonstrated unusual vitality; resurgence of nationalism in the 1980s was accompanied by a spate of church building in the Serbo-Byzantine style, which reasserted its position as the canonical style of the Orthodox church.

scholarly journals Chronological Indicators of Post-Hunnic Steppe Antiquities in Eastern Europe

2019 ◽  
pp. 105-124
Author(s):  
Michel Kazanski
Keyword(s):  
Eastern Europe ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Political Orientation ◽  
North Caucasus ◽  
The North ◽  
Sedentary Population ◽  
The Crimea ◽  
Political Economic ◽  
Economic Ties

The article discusses chronologically important things from the finds belonging to the steppe nomads of the Post-Hunnic periods in Eastern Europe, from the Urals to the Lower Danube (mid 5th – mid 6th centuries): weapons, horse equipment, elements of costume, jewelry. It should be noted that very similar types of these things prevail across the entire steppe area during the Post-Hunnic time, indicating the steppe nomad cultural homogeneity, regardless of their origin and ethnicity. Some things from the steppe graves of the time have a wider date and exist until the 7th century. Some things are typical for the early stage of the Post-Hunnic horizon, i.e. time around the middle – the second half of the 5th century. On the other hand, some things mark the end of the Post-Hunnic era and date back to the middle or second half of the 6th century. The date for most of the things examined here is established by external analogies, known in vast territories, which include the Western European and Balkan-Danubian regions. There the reasoned chronology of antiquities of the 5th – 6th centuries was developed, which is based on numerous coin finds and also on dendrochronology. Equally important for the chronology of steppe antiquities are analogs derived from the monuments of the sedentary population of the steppe borderlands, where there are numerous closed complexes. First of all, these are monuments of the North Caucasus, and the Crimea, on the chronology of which there are numerous studies. Some of the things we have considered belong to the prestigious “princely” culture and are of Mediterranean or Asian origin and thus reflect the cultural, military and political, economic ties of the steppe population and political orientation of the steppe “princely” elites in the Early Middle Ages.

scholarly journals THE MODELLING OF THE SETTLEMENTS OF 11th—13th CENTURIES. BASING ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES REMAINS OF TEREBOVLYA PRINCEDOM

2020 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
pp. 33-57
Author(s):  
O. V. Manigda
Keyword(s):  
Middle Ages ◽  
Social Life ◽  
Nearest Neighbor ◽  
Social Role ◽  
Early Stage ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Rural Settlements ◽  
Settlement Structure ◽  
Massive Growth ◽  
Area Of Influence

The purpose of the paper is to construct the model reconstructing the settlement structure inside the border of the Terebovlya princedom. The different types of archaeological sites since 10th till 13th cent. have been analyzed. These 710 sites are the source for researching the region’s settlement structure and the reconstruction of the settlements is based on it. Soil coverings are analyzed and landscape types are reconstructed based on soil types. These tasks were realized by implementing the GIS «The Settlements of The Terebovlya Princedom». The analysis of mapped archaeological sites has revealed the several aspects in the terms of existence. In particular the process of construction of new fortified settlements was intensified at the end of the 10th cent. We can reliably associate this process with the inclusion of the region in the area of influence of the Old Rus state. Increase of the number of fortresses in the 11th cent. marks the establishment of the Terebovlya Princedom as an administrative unit of the Galician Land. The analysis of the sites existed during the 12th—13th cent. is testified to the tendency of the massive growth of fortified and especially, non-fortified rural settlements. This tendency is common to most regions of Old Rus state during that period. The number of new fortified settlements increased in 1.5 times, the number of new rural settlements — in 7.4 times. But what is particularly different is the lacuna in chronology of settlements dating by 10th—13th cent. Mostly, these sites do not contain layers of 11th century. This fact may be the archaeological proof of the conquests of Prince Volodymyr at the end of the 10th century in the region of Middle Dniester. Two stages of existence of the settlements reconstructed from archaeological sites are considered. At the early stage of functioning (11th cent.) there is a concentration of settlements in the northern part of the princedom, around the centers of social life traditionally, from the early periods (Krutyliv I, Bohit, Postolivka I). The chronology and the social role of these centers is the question which should be detailed. A two-stage cluster analysis, conducted for the ancient settlements revealed such degree of neighborhood: for the settlements of 11th cent. the average nearest neighbor index is about 6.9 km and for the settlements of 12th—13th cent. this number is about 2.7 km. The economic aspect of the settlement structure is shown through using of soils and landscapes by ancient society. The reconstructed landscapes based on the soil cover, shows us a dominance of deciduous (leaved) and meadow-steppe areas on this territory. And among the reconstructed deciduous landscapes, the percentage of ancient forests reached 65 % in the Middle Ages. At the first look the ancient settlements were located on the borders of landscapes, in ecotones, which indirectly, can confirm the mixed type of management (farming). The necessary baseline and supplementary data were prepared for the reconstruction of the paleo-economy during the process of modeling the settlements structure of the region and will form the basis for further research.

scholarly journals Facing the Work of Art. Memories of My Student Years

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Piotr Skubiszewski
Keyword(s):  
World War Ii ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Literary History ◽  
Art History ◽  
Medieval Architecture ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
French Experience ◽  
The Times ◽  
French Tradition ◽  
The University

The present essay includes the author’s memories of his university studies and the intellectual formation that he received as a student of art history at the University of Poznań in 1949-1954. His first professor who opened to him the door to art history and exerted on him a strong intellectual influence, was Szczęsny Dettloff, a disciple of Heinrich Wölfflin in Munich and Max Dvořák in Vienna. Dettloff taught his students that the foundation of studying art in history is the study of the form of an individual artwork He believed that without a proper analysis of form it is impossible to construct appropriate series of the works of art and specify their position in the culture of the times of their origin. Similar sensitivity to form and the understanding of its significance for the art historian’s work were represented by two other professors important for the author, both educated by Dettloff already before World War II: Gwido Chmarzyński and Zdzisław Kępiński. When in 1957-1968 the author was a postgraduate student in the Centre d’Études Supérieures de Civilisation Médiévale at the University of Poitiers (CÉSCM), it turned out that the local methodological tradition was similar to what he had learned in Poznań before. The CÉSCM was founded as a multidisciplinary institute for the study of the Middle Ages, combining history, art history, literary history, and the history of ideas. It was important that one of them could shed light on an object studied by another, but each of them, including art history, kept its material and methodological identity. In the French tradition, art history had an “autonomous” status, focusing on artistic creation as a special sphere of human activity. That idea influenced also quite strongly the study of medieval architecture, originated in the early 19th century by Arcisse de Caumont, and continued until today by many generations of French scholars. What is characteristic of their research is meticulous analysis of form, articulated with a precise, detailed, and comprehensive specialist vocabulary. The lectures of French scholars on medieval architecture, which the author attended in Paris and Poitiers, taught him precision in the analysis of the artwork’s structure and its components, as well as responsibility for every single statement made on art. For a young art historian who did not specialize in architecture but in representational arts, that French experience was a lesson of methodological rigor necessary in the intellectual pursuits of the humanities scholar.

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