Gender Pay Gap

Sociology ◽  
2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
JooHee Han ◽  
Michelle Budig
Keyword(s):  
Gender Gap ◽  
White Women ◽  
The United States ◽  
Gender Segregation ◽  
Hourly Wage ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time

The “gender pay gap” refers to the average difference in men’s and women’s earnings, and is typically adjusted for hours worked. The gender pay gap can refer to differences in mean or median annual earnings, weekly earnings, or hourly wage. Because women tend to work part-time at higher rates than do men, and because part-time work tends to pay lower hourly wages relative to full-time work, the size of the gender pay gap is affected by whether full- and part-time, full-year or seasonal, and very young and very old workers are included in the estimates. Among full-time, year-round American workers aged sixteen and above in 2017, the gender pay gap (median weekly earnings) was 18.2 percent, meaning that women earned 81.8 cents of every man’s dollar. In the United States, women of color earn less relative to white men than white women do, owing to racial gaps in pay among women; moreover, within-race gender pay gaps are often smaller among racial/ethnic minorities, reflecting the low earnings of minority men. The gender gap has narrowed considerably since the early 20th century, yet disparities in women’s and men’s earnings persist. Moreover, this narrowing has not proceeded in a linear fashion and the gap has occasionally increased. This entry first introduces important literatures on historic and contemporary trends in the gender pay gap and then discusses the various explanations for the persistence of, and changes in, the gap. These explanations highlight the role of occupational gender segregation; the devaluation of female-typed work; gender differences in experience; family structure, care responsibilities, and the gendered impact of parenthood; workplace structures of inequality; glass ceilings and glass escalators. This entry concludes with a discussion of narrowing the gap and what it will take to close the gap.

The Politics of Part-Time Work: Gender, Employment Status, and Preferences for Redistribution

2020 ◽  
pp. 1-38
Author(s):  
David S. Pedulla ◽  
Michael J. Donnelly
Keyword(s):  
Employment Status ◽  
General Social Survey ◽  
The United States ◽  
Limited Attention ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Preferences For Redistribution ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Part Time Work

Abstract The social and economic forces that shape attitudes toward the welfare state are of central concern to social scientists. Scholarship in this area has paid limited attention to how working part-time, the employment status of nearly 20% of the U.S. workforce, affects redistribution preferences. In this article, we theoretically develop and empirically test an argument about the ways that part-time work, and its relationship to gender, shape redistribution preferences. We articulate two gender-differentiated pathways—one material and one about threats to social status—through which part-time work and gender may jointly shape individuals’ preferences for redistribution. We test our argument using cross-sectional and panel data from the General Social Survey in the United States. We find that the positive relationship between part-time employment, compared to full-time employment, and redistribution preferences is stronger for men than for women. Indeed, we do not detect a relationship between part-time work and redistribution preferences among women. Our results provide support for a gendered relationship between part-time employment and redistribution preferences and demonstrate that both material and status-based mechanisms shape this association.

Part-time by Gender, Not Choice: The Gender Gap in Involuntary Part-time Work

2020 ◽  
pp. 073112142093774
Author(s):  
Corey Pech ◽  
Elizabeth Klainot-Hess ◽  
Davon Norris
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Gender Inequality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Occupational Segregation ◽  
The United States ◽  
Care Work ◽  
Current Population Survey Data ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Part Time Work

Gender inequality in the labor market is a key focus of stratification research. Increasingly, variation in hours worked separates men and women’s employment experiences. Though women often voluntarily work part-time at higher rates than men, involuntary part-time work is both analytically distinct from voluntary part-time work and leaves workers economically precarious. To date, researchers have not systematically investigated gender disparities in involuntary part-time work in the United States. Utilizing Current Population Survey data, we test for a gender gap in involuntary part-time work and evaluate two potential mechanisms: occupational segregation and penalties for care work. We find that women are much more likely than men to work in involuntary part-time positions. Occupational segregation and a care work penalty partially, but not fully, explain this gap. Findings extend existing theories of gender inequality in the workforce and show how an underresearched dimension of job quality creates gender stratification in the United States.

Part-time employment, the gender wage gap and the role of wage-setting institutions: Evidence from 11 European countries

2017 ◽  
Vol 24 (3) ◽  
pp. 221-241 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eleonora Matteazzi ◽  
Ariane Pailhé ◽  
Anne Solaz
Keyword(s):  
Gender Gap ◽  
Gender Wage Gap ◽  
Wage Gap ◽  
European Countries ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Wage Setting ◽  
Wage Penalty ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Representation Of Women ◽  
Part Time

We examine how far the over-representation of women in part-time jobs can explain the gender gap in hourly earnings, and also investigate how far wage-setting institutions are correlated with the overall gender wage gap and the female part-time wage gap. Using European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2009 data for 11 European countries, we implement a double decomposition of the gender wage gap: between men and women employed full-time and between full-time and part-time working women. This shows that the wage penalty of women employed part-time occurs mainly through the segregation of part-time jobs, but the full-time gender pay gap remains mostly unexplained. At the macro level, the gender wage gap tends to be higher in countries where part-time employment is more widespread. Some wage-setting institutions seem to reduce the female full-time/part-time pay gap and the gender gap among full-time workers.

scholarly journals Female Labor Supply: Why Is the United States Falling Behind?

2013 ◽  
Vol 103 (3) ◽  
pp. 251-256 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francine D Blau ◽  
Lawrence M Kahn
Keyword(s):  
Parental Leave ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
The United States ◽  
Oecd Countries ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Female Labor ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Women's Labor Force Participation ◽  
Part Time Work

In 1990, the US had the sixth highest female labor participation rate among 22 OECD countries. By 2010 its rank had fallen to seventeenth. We find that the expansion of “family-friendly” policies, including parental leave and part-time work entitlements in other OECD countries, explains 29 percent of the decrease in US women's labor force participation relative to these other countries. However, these policies also appear to encourage part-time work and employment in lower level positions: US women are more likely than women in other countries to have full time jobs and to work as managers or professionals.

scholarly journals Employment Adjustment and Part-Time Work: Lessons from the United States and the United Kingdom

2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 389-435 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Borowczyk-Martins ◽  
Etienne LalÉ
Keyword(s):  
Working Hours ◽  
The United States ◽  
Full Time ◽  
The United Kingdom ◽  
Employment Adjustment ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Labor Adjustment ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Stock Flow ◽  
Part Time Work

We document that fluctuations in part-time employment play a major role in movements in hours per worker during cyclical swings in the labor market. Building on this result, we develop a stock-flow framework to describe the dynamics of part-time employment. The evolution of part-time employment is predominantly explained by cyclical changes in transitions between full-time and part-time employment. Those transitions occur overwhelmingly at the same employer, entail sizable changes in individual working hours and are associated with an increase in involuntary part-time work. Our findings provide a novel understanding of the cyclical dynamics of labor adjustment on the intensive margin. (JEL E24, E32, J22, J23)

scholarly journals Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Nurses: Where is the Financial Safety Net?

2021 ◽  
Vol 26 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Linda Millenbach ◽  
Frances Crosby ◽  
Jerome Niyirora ◽  
Kathleen Sellers ◽  
Rhonda Maneval ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Financial Distress ◽  
Safety Net ◽  
The United States ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Review Of Literature ◽  
Safety Nets ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Financial Safety Nets ◽  
Human Caring

The COVID-19 pandemic placed many nurses in financial distress. Nurses House, Inc. provided nurses with financial assistance through an emergency grant supported by the American Nurses Foundation. In a three-month period between April 2020 till July 2020, Nurses House, Inc. distributed $2,734,500 to a total of 2,484 qualified grantees from across the United States. This article offers a brief review of literature to provide context about the guiding framework of the grant, Watson’s Theory of Human Caring, as an essential tenet to nursing and to the mission of Nurses House, Inc, and the financial impact of the pandemic. We discuss the methods, data analysis, and results of our study that analyzed demographic information from the applications of grant recipients. Regression analysis showed that regardless of income levels, nurses experienced financial distress. The discussion considers our findings in relation to such areas as age and full-time or part-time work status of grantees; reasons to apply, such as testing positive for COVID=19 (78%), work mandated quarantine (16%) and caring for a family member (6%); and study limitations. The conclusion offers implications for practice based on our analysis, which demonstrated that financial safety nets are both essential and helpful for nurses in times of crisis.

scholarly journals Real wage growth in the U.S. health workforce and the narrowing of the gender pay gap

2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Janis Barry
Keyword(s):  
Patient Care ◽  
Wage Growth ◽  
Healthcare Sector ◽  
Direct Patient Care ◽  
Hourly Wage ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Gender Pay Gap ◽  
Pay Gap ◽  
Women's Earnings ◽  
The U.S

Abstract Background Healthcare has been identified as a job engine during recent recessions in the U.S. Whether the healthcare sector provides better than average pay remains a question. This study investigates if wages grew with the expanding demand for healthcare workers between 2001 and 2017. Wage growth in the (1) physicians and surgeons, (2) nurse, (3) healthcare practitioner and technical, (4) healthcare support, and (5) direct patient care jobs are examined. The gender pay gap in each occupation is investigated. Methods The American Community Survey (ACS) public use microdata sample (PUMS) for 2001, 2004, 2008, 2013, and 2017 were used to derive hourly wages for full-time, full-year workers aged 18–75. The cumulative percent change in unadjusted, median hourly wages between 2001 and 2017 was calculated for each occupation. Quantile regression estimates predicted a median hourly wage for men and women by year and job after adjusting for differences in demographics, industry, and hours worked. Results Unadjusted median wage growth was 9.92% for nurses, 5.68% for healthcare practitioners, and 37.6% for physicians between 2001 and 2017. These rates are roughly above the estimated national rate of wage growth at the 50th wage percentile. In healthcare support and direct patient care occupations, workers experienced either stagnant or negative wage growth. Women had lower occupational wages than men. Conclusion The slow or negative median wage growth in all but the physician occupation between 2004–2008 and 2008–2013 confirms that healthcare wages in the U.S. are not recession-proof, unlike healthcare employment. Generally, women's earnings grew at rates that were higher or less negative than rates for men. This trend contributed to narrowing the gender pay gap in every occupation except for nurse.

Women and Entrepreneurship – Albanian Case

2016 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
pp. 249
Author(s):  
Anna Xheka
Keyword(s):  
Gender Equality ◽  
Gender Gap ◽  
Secondary Data ◽  
Special Focus ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Men And Women ◽  
Women’S Entrepreneurship ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Women's Entrepreneurship ◽  
The Difference

Women’s entrepreneurship is a powerful source, regarding to the women’s economic independence and empowerment, as well as regarding employment generation, economic growth and innovation, development and the reduction of poverty as well as one of the terms of gender equality. This poster presents the situation of women's entrepreneurship in Europe in comparative terms, with special focus in Albania. The paper has a descriptive nature. Describes three different plans in comparative terms; the representation of men and women in entrepreneurship, the representation of women in entrepreneurship in different countries of Europe and of Europe as a whole, as well as compare to gender quota. Through the processing of secondary data from various reports and studies, this poster concludes that although that the gender equality goal is the equal participation of men and women in all sectors, including the entrepreneurship, in this sector, gender gap it is still deep. Another significant comparative aspect, it is the difference between full and part –time women entrepreneurship. While in full time entrepreneurship in a convince way, men are those that dominate, in part time entrepreneurship clearly it’s evident the opposite trend, women's representation is much higher. It’s very interesting the fact, that the women’s entrepreneurship in Albania, presented in a significant optimistic situation, ranking in the second place, after Greece in the European level

Wishing to work: New perspectives on how adolescents’ part-time work intensity is linked to educational disengagement, substance use, and other problem behaviours

2003 ◽  
Vol 27 (4) ◽  
pp. 301-315 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jerald G. Bachman ◽  
Deborah J. Safron ◽  
Susan Rogala Sy ◽  
John E. Schulenberg
Keyword(s):  
Substance Use ◽  
The United States ◽  
Work Intensity ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
School Year ◽  
Problem Behaviours ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Educational Engagement ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Part Time Work

This study examines interrelations among students’ educational engagement, desired and actual school-year employment, substance use, and other problem behaviours. Cross-sectional findings from representative samples of 8th-, 10th-, and 12th-grade students in the United States, totalling over 300,000 respondents surveyed during the years 1992–1998, include the following: Large majorities of adolescents wish to work part-time during the school year, although most in earlier grades are not actually employed. Those who desire to work long hours tend to have low grades and low college aspirations; they are also more likely than average to use cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana. Students’ preferences for part-time work emerge at younger ages (i.e., earlier grades) than actual work, and the preferences show equal or stronger correlations with educational disengagement and problem behaviours.

The Effects of Part-Time Work on Women's Occupational Mobility in Britain: Evidence from the 1958 Birth Cohort Study

2012 ◽  
Vol 222 ◽  
pp. R20-R37 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shirley Dex ◽  
Erzsébet Bukodi
Keyword(s):  
Cohort Study ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Occupational Mobility ◽  
Birth Cohort Study ◽  
Full Time ◽  
Downward Mobility ◽  
Time Work ◽  
Part Time ◽  
Nationally Representative ◽  
Part Time Work

The effects of working part time on job downgrading and upgrading are examined over the life course of British women born in 1958. We use longitudinal data with complete work histories from a large-scale nationally representative cohort study. Occupations were ranked by their hourly average earnings. Analyses show a strong link between full-time/part-time transitions and downward and upward occupational mobility over the course of up to thirty years of employment. Probabilities of occupational mobility were affected by women's personal traits, occupational characteristics and demand-side factors. Downward mobility on moving from full-time to part-time work was more likely for women at the top levels of the occupational hierarchy working in male-dominated or mixed occupations and less likely in higher occupations with more part-time jobs available.

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