Sex Differences in Primate Social Relationships During Development

2019 ◽  
pp. 26-41
Author(s):  
Joyce F. Benenson
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Social Relationships ◽  
Rhesus Macaques ◽  
Social Play ◽  
Great Apes ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Critical Factors ◽  
Dominance Relations ◽  
The Social ◽  
Direct Aggression

The chapter focuses on the social development of immature primates across several species in the Cercopithecidae and Hominidae families, in particular rhesus macaques, the great apes, and humans. The chapter provides an overview of critical factors that characterize the rearing environments of immature females and males, including social structure, residence patterns, and dominance relations. Regardless of rearing environment, consistent sex differences in immatures occur in relationships with mothers, adult males, same-sex peers, and infants. Additionally, sex differences regularly are found in rates of development, quests for dominance, frequency of social play, and rate and intensity of direct aggression across species.

Infant bystanders modulate the influence of ovarian hormones on female socio-sexual behaviour in free-ranging rhesus macaques

Behaviour ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 148 (9-10) ◽  
pp. 1137-1155 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tara M. Mandalaywala ◽  
James P. Higham ◽  
Michael Heistermann ◽  
Dario Maestripieri
Keyword(s):  
Puerto Rico ◽  
Social Relationships ◽  
Sexual Behaviour ◽  
Rhesus Macaques ◽  
Mating Behaviour ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Non Invasive ◽  
The Social ◽  
Close Proximity ◽  
Free Ranging

AbstractIt has long been established that one of the driving factors underlying changes in female socio-sexual behaviour across the ovarian cycle is variation in the hormones oestrogen and progesterone. However, the effect that the social environment, and specifically con-specific bystanders, exerts on social relationships is far less clear. Here we explore the modulating effects of infant bystanders on relationships between female ovarian cycling and socio-sexual behaviour in free-ranging rhesus macaques during the 6-month mating season on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. We used non-invasive hormone assessment to time ovulation in females, and analysed measures of social and sexual behaviour with respect to a 2-day ovulation window. Rates of copulation and ejaculation varied relative to ovulation, with female–male sexual interactions peaking around ovulation. Moreover, the presence of an infant bystander affected these rates, with fewer sexual interactions occurring for a given day with respect to ovulation when infant bystanders were more frequently in close proximity to the female. Other bystander categories (adult females, adult males, and adult female & infant groupings) did not have the same effect on female mating behaviour. These results suggest that mother–offspring conflict might manifest not only as direct interactions between mother and infant (e.g., weaning or carrying conflict), but also through indirect interactions.

scholarly journals Sex Bias and Social Influences on Savanna Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) Nest Building Behavior

2020 ◽  
Vol 41 (6) ◽  
pp. 849-869 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fiona A. Stewart ◽  
Jill D. Pruetz
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Pan Troglodytes ◽  
Tool Use ◽  
Great Apes ◽  
Nest Building ◽  
Pan Troglodytes Verus ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Extractive Foraging ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Adult Females

AbstractMany primates show sex differences in behavior, particularly social behavior, but also tool use for extractive foraging. All great apes learn to build a supportive structure for sleep. Whether sex differences exist in building, as in extractive foraging, is unknown, and little is known about how building skills develop and vary between individuals in the wild. We therefore aimed to describe the nesting behavior of savanna chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Fongoli, Senegal to provide comparative data and to investigate possible sex or age differences in nest building behaviors and nest characteristics. We followed chimpanzee groups to their night nesting sites to record group (55 nights) and individual level data (17 individuals) on nest building initiation and duration (57 nests) during the dry season between October 2007 and March 2008. We returned the following morning to record nest and tree characteristics (71 nests built by 25 individuals). Fongoli chimpanzees nested later than reported for other great apes, but no sex differences in initiating building emerged. Observations were limited but suggest adult females and immature males to nest higher, in larger trees than adult males, and adult females to take longer to build than either adult or immature males. Smaller females and immature males may avoid predation or access thinner, malleable branches, by nesting higher than adult males. These differences suggest that sex differences described for chimpanzee tool use may extend to nest building, with females investing more time and effort in constructing a safe, warm structure for sleep than males do.

An Integrated Review of Indirect, Relational, and Social Aggression

2005 ◽  
Vol 9 (3) ◽  
pp. 212-230 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Archer ◽  
Sarah M. Coyne
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Social Status ◽  
Relational Aggression ◽  
Social Aggression ◽  
Future Research ◽  
Indirect Aggression ◽  
The Social ◽  
Direct Aggression ◽  
Adaptive Framework ◽  
The Impact

Over the last decade, researchers have found that girls may be just as aggressive as boys when manipulative forms of aggression, such as gossiping and spreading rumors, are included. These forms of aggression are known by 3 different names: indirect aggression, relational aggression, and social aggression. This review examines their commonalities and differences, and concludes that they are essentially the same form of aggression. We show that analogous forms are not found in other species. We offer a functional account: indirect aggression is an alternative strategy to direct aggression, enacted when the costs of direct aggression are high, and whose aim is to socially exclude, or harm the social status of, a victim. In this light, we consider sex differences and developmental trends and the impact of this aggression on victims. We conclude that indirect, relational, and social aggression are much more similar than they are different, and we suggest ways in which future research can be facilitated by integrating the three areas under an adaptive framework.

Developmental and Comparative Aspects of Social Play of Mantled Howling Monkeys in Costa Rica

Behaviour ◽  
1992 ◽  
Vol 123 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 144-171 ◽  
Author(s):  
Evan L. Zucker ◽  
Margaret R. Clarke
Keyword(s):  
Costa Rica ◽  
Adult Male ◽  
Social Play ◽  
Observation Time ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Juvenile Period ◽  
Mantled Howlers ◽  
The Social ◽  
Focal Observation ◽  
Howling Monkeys

AbstractThe social play of infant and juvenile mantled howling monkeys in Costa Rica was studied via focal sampling (529.2 h) of known individuals of known age over a 22-month period. Observations of adult males (291.2 h of focal samples), done over portions of 3 calendar years, provided supplemental data for the social play of adults. Developmental patterns of play are presented, and are compared with data available for other mantled howlers, other sites, and other species of howlers. Social play by infants and juveniles occurred at the rate of .56 bouts/h, represented 5.79% of the total focal observation time, and bouts had a mean duration of 6.19 minutes. Play by an adult male occurred at the rate of .03 bouts/h (.007/h for all 4 adult males combined), represented 0.24% of his total focal time, and had a mean duration of 5.0 minutes. Ontogenetically, social play began in the 8th week of life. Infants' rates of play and percentage of time spent in play increased from the I1 stage through the I3 stage, then decreased into the juvenile period (> 1 year of age). Mean durations of play bouts increased through the 3 infant stages, then decreased slightly in the J1 stage. The occurrence ofplay groups (3 or more individuals) increased through the infant and juvenile stages. As infants aged, a larger percentage of bouts occurred further from the infants' and juveniles' mothers. With respect to social variables, no overall developmental pattern was evident for playing with an older or younger partner, or a partner that was the offspring of a mother ranked higher or lower than one's own mother; different age classes showed different patterns. When an older sibling was available as a play partner, no preference for this relative was shown. I3's had the highest number of different play partners. Immature howlers played predominantly with other immatures (93% of their interactions). The behaviours observed during play were similar to those reported for other howlers; the behaviours emitted by an adult male were similar to those of the juvenile partner, as was the style and intensity of play. The social play of these mantled howlers is viewed with respect to social, demographic, and ecological variables. The play of howlers is both facilitated and constrained by these variables.

scholarly journals Socialization of infant blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni): Allomaternal interactions and sex differences

Behaviour ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 142 (7) ◽  
pp. 869-896 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steffen Förster ◽  
Marina Cords
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Social Relationships ◽  
Group Composition ◽  
Spatial Association ◽  
Social Play ◽  
Spatial Proximity ◽  
Cercopithecus Mitis ◽  
Large Juvenile ◽  
Adult Females ◽  
Blue Monkeys

AbstractAn important part of the ontogeny of social mammals is the establishment of social relationships with non-mothers. Mothers may influence this socialization process, but other factors like the number and kind of potential partners available may also be important. In matrilineal societies, variation in allomaternal social experience is also likely to differ for males and females, relating to differences in their respective life histories. We investigated differences in non-maternal social relationships of 12 infant blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni) in their first six months of life in a wild population. Based on previous findings that blue monkey infants develop spatial independence from their mothers at a relatively early age, we expected that infants would also socialize with non-maternal group members early in life. As possible determinants of variation in infant socialization, we evaluated the effects of age, sex, group composition, and timing of birth relative to the birth season. Allomaternal social relationships of infants differed between social groups, largely but not exclusively in response to differences in group composition. Adjusting for these group differences, we found that infants generally avoided spatial proximity to non-maternal adult females, whereas they associated more than expected by chance with other infants and large juvenile females, when away from their mothers. Close spatial association with other adult females and small juveniles increased when infants were near their mothers. Association with other infants decreased with proximity to the mother, apparently because peer playgroups led infants away from their mothers. Infants were spatially well integrated into the core of the group, associating with most available adult and large juvenile partners. Male infants spent more time in social play than females, and engaged in more rough-and-tumble play bouts, and in bouts of longer duration, than females. Large juvenile females regularly took care of infants, whereas adult females rarely acted as caretakers. There were no sex differences in behavior directed towards infants by non-mothers, but female infants associated more than male infants with adult females when away from their mothers. Although sex differences in social play correspond to similar differences in the importance of fighting skills for adults, alternative explanations for the observed pattern remain plausible. Our data support the hypothesis that allomaternal care functions as infant handling practice for nulliparous females. The relatively rapid social development we observed in our subjects contrasts with the generally slow life history of the species and suggests that developmental rates during infancy and juvenility are promoted and constrained by different factors.

scholarly journals Sex Differences in the Development of Social Relationships in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

2015 ◽  
Vol 36 (2) ◽  
pp. 353-376 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lars Kulik ◽  
Federica Amici ◽  
Doreen Langos ◽  
Anja Widdig
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Social Relationships ◽  
Macaca Mulatta ◽  
Rhesus Macaques

scholarly journals Behaviourally specific preferred associations in bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops spp.

2005 ◽  
Vol 83 (12) ◽  
pp. 1566-1573 ◽  
Author(s):  
S Gero ◽  
L Bejder ◽  
H Whitehead ◽  
J Mann ◽  
R C Connor
Keyword(s):  
Social Relationships ◽  
Bottlenose Dolphins ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Shark Bay ◽  
Behavioural State ◽  
The Social ◽  
Association Group ◽  
Males And Females ◽  
Free Ranging

We investigated association patterns of 52 photographically identified, free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp. Gervais, 1855) across four behavioural states (rest, travel, social, and foraging/feeding) to investigate how behavioural state influences patterns of association. Group composition and behavioural data were extracted from 2178 encounter surveys collected over 3 years. Analyses revealed three general types of association: (1) affiliates, which consistently demonstrate preferred associations across all behavioural states; (2) acquaintances, which never form preferred associations but still associate in at least one behavioural state; and (3) behavioural associates, which form preferred associations in at least one, but not all behavioural states. The majority of associations in Shark Bay, Australia, are acquaintance type (38.2%), with affiliates (5.7%, principally between adult males) and behavioural associates (28.9%, principally between juveniles) being relatively rarer. Permutation tests identified behaviourally specific preferred associations during all behavioural states. Although behaviourally specific preferred associations appear to exist within the Shark Bay social structure, it seems that the social organization and mating system constrain the social relationships for the majority of males and females in differing ways which prevent them from having behavioural associates, leaving juveniles free to associate based on short-term expediency and behavioural specific needs.

Field Dependence—Independence, Social—Non-Social Play and Sex Differences in Preschool Children

1975 ◽  
Vol 40 (1) ◽  
pp. 195-202 ◽  
Author(s):  
Susan Coates ◽  
Mae Lord ◽  
Evelyn Jakabovics
Keyword(s):  
Sex Differences ◽  
Preschool Children ◽  
Field Dependence ◽  
Social Play ◽  
Social Dimension ◽  
Single Dimension ◽  
Field Independent ◽  
The Social ◽  
Field Dependent

The present study investigated the hypothesis that preschool children who spend more time in social play than in non-social play would be more field-dependent than their field-independent counterparts. Over-all the hypothesis was supported by the results. Although the social-non-social dimension appeared to account for most of the findings, correlations between individual play activities and field dependence suggested that this single dimension could not adequately account for all of the findings. The dimension of perceptual-motor demand required in some of the activities may have been involved as well. Discussion focused on the complexity of the play preference, cognitive findings, and on sex differences as well.

scholarly journals Social cliques in male northern muriquis Brachyteles hypoxanthus

2012 ◽  
Vol 58 (2) ◽  
pp. 342-352 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marcos Tokuda ◽  
Jean P. Boubli ◽  
Patrícia Izar ◽  
Karen B. Strier
Keyword(s):  
Social Interactions ◽  
Social Relationships ◽  
Social Preferences ◽  
Female Group ◽  
Spatial Relationships ◽  
Adult Males ◽  
The Social ◽  
Intergroup Encounters ◽  
Social Cliques ◽  
Animal Societies

Abstract Analyses of spatial relationships and social interactions provide insights into the social structure of animal societies and the ways in which social preferences among and between dyads affect higher order social relationships. In this paper we describe the patterns of spatial associations and social interactions among adult male northern muriquis in order to evaluate the dynamics of their social networks above the dyadic levels. Systematic observations were made on the 17 adult males present in a multi-male/multi-female group from April 2004 through February 2005, and in July 2005. Analyses of their spatial relationships identified two distinct male cliques; some adult males (called “N” males) were more connected to the females and immatures than other adult males (“MU” males), which were more connected to one another. Affiliative interactions were significantly higher among dyads belonging to the same clique than to different cliques. Although frequencies of dyadic agonistic interactions were similarly low among individuals within and between cliques, MU males appeared to be subordinate to N males. Nonetheless, there were no significant differences in the copulation rates estimated for MU males and N males. Mutual benefits of cooperation between MU and N cliques in intergroup encounters might explain their ongoing associations in the same mixed-sex group [Current Zoology 58 (2): 342–352, 2012].

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