scholarly journals Normalization by Valence and Motivational Intensity in the Primary Sensorimotor Cortices (PMd, M1 and S1)

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhao Yao ◽  
John P Hessburg ◽  
Joseph Thachil Francis
Keyword(s):  
Grip Force ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Small Range ◽  
Bonnet Macaque ◽  
Time Out ◽  
Motivational Intensity ◽  
Motor Control System ◽  
Cortical Regions ◽  
Human Primate

AbstractOur brain’s ability to represent vast amounts of information, such as continuous ranges of reward spanning orders of magnitude, with limited dynamic range neurons, may be possible due to normalization. Recently our group and others have shown that the sensorimotor cortices are sensitive to reward value. In order to determine if normalization plays a role in the sensorimotor cortices when considering non-sensorimotor variables, such as valence and motivational intensity, we had two non-human primate (NHP) subjects (one male bonnet macaque and one female rhesus macaque) make cued grip-force movements while simultaneously cueing the level of possible reward if successful, or time-out punishment if unsuccessful. We recorded simultaneously from 96 electrodes in each the somatosensory, motor and dorsal premotor cortices (S1, M1, PMd). We utilized several normalization models for valence, and motivational intensity in all three regions. We found three types of divisive normalized relationships between neural activity and the representation of reward and punishment, linear, sigmodal and hyperbolic. The hyperbolic relationships resemble receptive fields in psychological affect space, where a unit is particularly sensitive to a small range of the valence/motivational space. We found that these cortical regions have both strong valence and motivational intensity representations.Significance StatementBrain machine interfaces (BMIs) are likely to make their way into the clinical setting in the future. Increasing stability of brain derived control of such BMI systems is one essential aspect towards user acceptance, and stability must be maintained no matter the emotional state of the user. However, it is well known that we move faster for rewards of higher magnitude, indicating that emotions influence the motor control system, where BMI control signals come from. Here we report widespread affective modulation of the sensorimotor regions (PMd, PMv, M1 and S1) by cued levels of possible reward if successful and time-out punishment if unsuccessful in non-human primates, and that affect divisively normalizes these regions activity.

scholarly journals Normalization by valence and motivational intensity in the sensorimotor cortices (PMd, M1, and S1)

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhao Yao ◽  
John P. Hessburg ◽  
Joseph Thachil Francis
Keyword(s):  
Neural Activity ◽  
Grip Force ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Small Range ◽  
Bonnet Macaque ◽  
Motivational Intensity ◽  
Reward Value ◽  
Female Rhesus ◽  
Cortical Regions

AbstractOur brain’s ability to represent vast amounts of information, such as continuous ranges of reward spanning orders of magnitude, with limited dynamic range neurons, may be possible due to normalization. Recently our group and others have shown that the sensorimotor cortices are sensitive to reward value. Here we ask if psychological affect causes normalization of the sensorimotor cortices by modulating valence and motivational intensity. We had two non-human primates (NHP) subjects (one male bonnet macaque and one female rhesus macaque) make visually cued grip-force movements while simultaneously cueing the level of possible reward if successful, or timeout punishment, if unsuccessful. We recorded simultaneously from 96 electrodes in each the following: caudal somatosensory, rostral motor, and dorsal premotor cortices (cS1, rM1, PMd). We utilized several normalization models for valence and motivational intensity in all three regions. We found three types of divisive normalized relationships between neural activity and the representation of valence and motivation, linear, sigmodal, and hyperbolic. The hyperbolic relationships resemble receptive fields in psychological affect space, where a unit is susceptible to a small range of the valence/motivational space. We found that these cortical regions have both strong valence and motivational intensity representations.

Activation of Spinal Wide Dynamic Range Neurons by Intracutaneous Microinjection of Nicotine

1999 ◽  
Vol 82 (6) ◽  
pp. 3046-3055 ◽  
Author(s):  
Steven L. Jinks ◽  
E. Carstens
Keyword(s):  
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors ◽  
Acetylcholine Receptors ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Threshold Region ◽  
Partial Recovery ◽  
Evoked Responses ◽  
Wide Dynamic Range ◽  
Analgesic Effects ◽  
Wdr Neurons

Nicotine evokes pain in the skin and oral mucosa and excites a subpopulation of cutaneous nociceptors, but little is known about the central transmission of chemogenic pain. We have investigated the responses of lumbar spinal wide dynamic range (WDR)-type dorsal horn neurons to intracutaneous (ic) microinjection of nicotine in pentobarbital-anesthetized rats. Nearly all (97%) units responded to nicotine microinjected ic (1 μl) into the low-threshold region of the hind-paw mechanosensitive receptive field in a concentration-related manner (0.01–10%). Responses to repeated injections of 10% nicotine exhibited tachyphylaxis at 5-, 10-, and 15-min interstimulus intervals. Significant tachyphylaxis was not seen with 1% nicotine. All nicotine-responsive units tested ( n = 30) also responded to ic histamine (1 μl, 3%) and did not exhibit tachyphylaxis to repeated histamine. However, there was significant cross-tachyphylaxis of nicotine to histamine. Thus 5 min after ic nicotine, histamine-evoked responses were attenuated significantly compared with the initial histamine-evoked response prior to nicotine, with partial recovery over the ensuing 15 min. Neuronal excitation by ic nicotine was not mediated by histamine H1 receptors because ic injection of the H1 receptor antagonist, cetirizine, had no effect on ic nicotine-evoked responses, whereas it significantly attenuated ic histamine-evoked responses in the same neurons. The lowest-threshold portion of cutaneous receptive fields showed a significant expansion in area at 20 min after ic nicotine 10%, indicative of sensitization. Responses to 1% nicotine were significantly reduced after ic injection of the nicotinic antagonist, mecamylamine (0.1% ic), with no recovery over the ensuing 40–60 min. These data indicate that nicotine ic excites spinal WDR neurons, partly via neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors that are presumably expressed in cutaneous nociceptor terminals. Repeated injections of high concentrations of nicotine led to tachyphylaxis and cross-tachyphylaxis with histamine, possibly relevant to peripheral analgesic effects of nicotine.

Primate nucleus gracilis neurons: responses to innocuous and noxious stimuli

1988 ◽  
Vol 59 (3) ◽  
pp. 886-907 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. G. Ferrington ◽  
J. W. Downie ◽  
W. D. Willis
Keyword(s):  
Conduction Velocity ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Subcutaneous Tissue ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
High Threshold ◽  
Spinothalamic Tract ◽  
Sinusoidal Vibration ◽  
Nucleus Gracilis ◽  
Pressure Sensitive ◽  
Stimulation Of

1. Recordings were made from 67 neurons in the nucleus gracilis (NG) of anesthetized macaque monkeys. All of the cells were activated antidromically from the ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus of the contralateral thalamus. Stimuli used to activate the cells orthodromically were graded innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli, including sinusoidal vibration and thermal pulses. 2. The latencies of antidromic action potentials following stimulation in the VPL nucleus were significantly shorter for cells in the caudal compared with the rostral NG. The mean minimum afferent conduction velocity of the afferent conduction velocity of the afferent fibers exciting the NG cells was 52 m/s, as judged from the latencies of the cells to orthodromic volleys evoked by electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves. The overall conduction velocity of the pathway from peripheral nerve to thalamus was approximately 40 m/s. 3. Cutaneous receptive fields on the distal hindlimb usually occupied an area equivalent to much less than a single digit. However, a few cells had receptive fields up to or exceeding the area of the foot. 4. NG cells were classified by their responses to graded mechanical stimulation of the skin as low threshold (LT) or wide dynamic range (WDR). No high-threshold NG cells were found. A special subcategory of pressure-sensitive LT (SA) neurons was recognized. Many of these cells were maximally responsive to maintained indentation of the skin. The sample of NG cells differed from the population of primate spinothalamic and spinocervicothalamic pathways so far examined, in having a larger proportion of LT neurons and a smaller proportion of WDR cells. A few NG cells responded best to manipulation of subcutaneous tissue. 5. Discriminant analysis permitted the NG cells to be assigned to classes determined by a k-means cluster analysis of the responses of a reference set of 318 primate spinothalamic tract (STT) cells. There were four classes of cells based on normalized responses of individual neurons and another four classes based upon responses compared across the population of cells. The NG cells were allocated to the various categories in different proportions than either primate STT cells or spinocervicothalamic neurons, consistent with the view that the functional roles of these somatosensory pathways differ. 6. Some of the pressure-sensitive NG cells were excited when the skin was stretched, suggesting an input from type II slowly adapting (Ruffini) mechanoreceptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Response and receptive-field properties of spinomesencephalic tract cells in the cat

1986 ◽  
Vol 55 (1) ◽  
pp. 76-96 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. P. Yezierski ◽  
R. H. Schwartz
Keyword(s):  
Spinal Cord ◽  
Receptive Field ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
The Body ◽  
Noxious Stimulation ◽  
Primary Afferent ◽  
Receptive Field Properties ◽  
Afferent Fibers ◽  
Primary Afferent Fibers

Recordings were made from 90 identified spinomesencephalic tract (SMT) cells in the lumbosacral spinal cord of cats anesthetized with alpha-chloralose and pentobarbital sodium. Recording sites were located in laminae I-VIII. Antidromic stimulation sites were located in different regions of the rostral and caudal midbrain including the periaqueductal gray, midbrain reticular formation, and the deep layers of the superior colliculus. Twelve SMT cells were antidromically activated from more than one midbrain level or from sites in the medial thalamus. The mean conduction velocity for the population of cells sampled was 45.2 +/- 21.4 m/s. Cells were categorized based on their responses to graded intensities of mechanical stimuli and the location of excitatory and/or inhibitory receptive fields. Four major categories of cells were encountered: wide dynamic range (WDR); high threshold (HT); deep/tap; and nonresponsive. WDR and HT cells had excitatory and/or inhibitory receptive fields restricted to the ipsilateral hindlimb or extending to other parts of the body including the tail, forelimbs, and face. Some cells had long afterdischarges following noxious stimulation, whereas others had high rates of background activity that was depressed by nonnoxious and noxious stimuli. Deep/tap cells received convergent input from muscle, joint, or visceral primary afferent fibers. The placement of mechanical lesions at different rostrocaudal levels of the cervical spinal cord provided information related to the spinal trajectory of SMT axons. Six axons were located contralateral to the recording electrode in the ventrolateral/medial or lateral funiculi while two were located in the ventrolateral funiculus of the ipsilateral spinal cord. Stimulation at sites used to antidromically activate SMT cells resulted in the inhibition of background and evoked responses for 22 of 25 cells tested. Inhibitory effects were observed on responses evoked by low/high intensity cutaneous stimuli and by the activation of joint or muscle primary afferent fibers. Based on the response and receptive-field properties of SMT cells it is suggested that the SMT may have an important role in somatosensory mechanisms, particularly those related to nociception.

Alteration of Medullary Dorsal Horn Neuronal Activity Following Inferior Alveolar Nerve Transection in Rats

2001 ◽  
Vol 86 (6) ◽  
pp. 2868-2877 ◽  
Author(s):  
Koichi Iwata ◽  
Takao Imai ◽  
Yoshiyuki Tsuboi ◽  
Akimasa Tashiro ◽  
Akiko Ogawa ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dorsal Horn ◽  
Neuronal Activity ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Escape Behavior ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Inferior Alveolar Nerve ◽  
Skin Incision ◽  
Medullary Dorsal Horn ◽  
Whisker Pad ◽  
Wdr Neurons

The effects of inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) transection on escape behavior and MDH neuronal activity to noxious and nonnoxious stimulation of the face were precisely analyzed. Relative thresholds for escape from mechanical stimulation applied to the whisker pad area ipsilateral to the transection were significantly lower than that for the contralateral and sham-operated whisker pad until 28 days after the transection, then returned to the preoperative level at 40 days after transection. A total of 540 neurons were recorded from the medullary dorsal horn (MDH) of the nontreated naive rats [low-threshold mechanoreceptive (LTM), 27; wide dynamic range (WDR), 31; nociceptive specific (NS), 11] and sham-operated rats with skin incision (LTM, 34; WDR, 30; NS, 23) and from the ipsilateral (LTM, 82; WDR, 82; NS, 31) and contralateral MDH relative to the IAN transection (LTM, 77; WDR, 82; NS, 33). The electrophysiological properties of these neurons were precisely analyzed. Background activity of WDR neurons on the ipsilateral side relative to the transection was significantly increased at 2–14 days after the operation as compared with that of naive rats. Innocuous and noxious mechanical-evoked responses of LTM and WDR neurons were significantly enhanced at 2–14 days after IAN transection. The mean area of the receptive fields of WDR neurons was significantly larger on the ipsilateral MDH at 2–7 days after transection than that of naive rats. We could not observe any modulation of thermal responses of WDR and NS neurons following IAN transection. Also, no MDH neurons were significantly affected in the rats with sham operations. The present findings suggest that the increment of neuronal activity of WDR neurons in the MDH following IAN transection may play an important role in the development of the mechano-allodynia induced in the area adjacent to the area innervated by the injured nerve.

Responses of cerebellar Purkinje cells to slip of a hand-held object

1992 ◽  
Vol 67 (3) ◽  
pp. 483-495 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. Dugas ◽  
A. M. Smith
Keyword(s):  
Receptive Field ◽  
Purkinje Cells ◽  
Cerebellar Cortex ◽  
Grip Force ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Emg Activity ◽  
Spike Discharge ◽  
Complex Spike ◽  
Simple Spike ◽  
Force Pulse

1. Two monkeys were trained to grasp, lift, and hold a device between the thumb and forefinger for 1 s. The device was equipped with a position transducer and strain gauges that measured the horizontal grip force and the vertical lifting or load force. On selected blocks of 20-30 trials, a force-pulse perturbation was applied to the object during static holding to simulate object slip. The animals were required to resist this displacement by stiffening the joints of their wrists and fingers to obtain a fruit juice reward. Single cells in the hand representation area of the paravermal anterior lobe of the cerebellar cortex were recorded during perturbed and unperturbed holding. If conditions permitted, the cell discharge was also recorded during lifting of objects of various weights (15, 65, or 115 g) or different surface textures (sandpaper or polished metal), and when possible the cutaneous or proprioceptive fields of the neurons were characterized with the use of natural stimulation. 2. On perturbed trials, the force pulse was always applied to the manipulandum after it had been held stationary within the position window for 750 ms. The perturbation invariably elicited a reflexlike increase of electromyographic (EMG) activity in wrist and finger muscles, resulting in a time-locked increase in grip force that peaked at a latency between 50 and 100 ms. 3. The object-slip perturbation had a powerful effect on cerebellar cortical neurons at a mean latency of 45 +/- 14 (SD) ms. Reflexlike increases or decreases in simple spike discharge occurred in 55% (53/97) of unidentified cells and 49% (21/43) of Purkinje cells recorded in the anterior paravermal and lateral cerebellar cortex. 4. The perturbation failed to evoke complex spike responses from any of the Purkinje cells examined. All the perturbation-evoked activity changes involved modulation of the simple spike discharge. The perturbations stimulated the simple-spike receptive field of most Purkinje cells recorded here, which suggests that the short-latency unit responses were triggered by afferent stimulation. Only one Purkinje cell was found with a distinct complex-spike receptive field on the thumb, but this neuron did not respond to the perturbation. It appears that simple- and complex-spike to receptive fields are not always identical or even closely related. 5. The majority of Purkinje and unidentified neurons that responded to the perturbation had cutaneous receptive fields, although some had proprioceptive fields. Seventy-seven neurons were examined for peripheral receptive fields and were also tested with the perturbation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Changes in tonic descending inhibition of spinal neurons with articular input during the development of acute arthritis in the cat

1991 ◽  
Vol 66 (3) ◽  
pp. 1021-1032 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. G. Schaible ◽  
V. Neugebauer ◽  
F. Cervero ◽  
R. F. Schmidt
Keyword(s):  
Acute Inflammation ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Response Threshold ◽  
Mechanical Stimuli ◽  
Spinal Neurons ◽  
Descending Inhibition ◽  
Intact State ◽  
Wdr Neurons ◽  
Alpha Chloralose

1. In 15 alpha-chloralose-anesthetized cats we studied the presence of tonic descending inhibition (TDI) of spinal neurons with input from the knee and its modulation during an acute inflammation of this joint. TDI of spinal neurons with articular input was assessed by applying reversible cold blocks to the lower thoracic cord. The amount of descending inhibition was estimated from the induction and/or increase of resting discharges and of the responses to mechanical stimuli to the knee and other structures during the transitory and reversible blocks. In each experiment one or a few neurons were investigated while the joint was in normal condition [altogether 15 nociceptive-specific (NS) and 6 wide-dynamic-range (WDR) neurons]. One of the neurons was then selected for long-term recordings during which an acute inflammation in the knee was induced by the intra-articular injection of kaolin and carrageenan. Before and during developing arthritis, cold blocks were applied to examine whether the amount of TDI would change during the inflammatory process. 2. The neurons with input from the normal knee were under TDI because application of the cold block induced or increased resting discharges and the responses to noxious compression of the knee and the adjacent thigh and lower leg. In 10 of 15 NS neurons, the response threshold was lowered into the innocuous range. In 9 of 17 cells tested, the excitatory receptive field expanded to the ipsilateral paw, and 4 neurons became inhibited by paw compression. Seven of 18 neurons tested revealed inhibitory receptive fields on the contralateral leg during cold block. The neurons were located in laminae IV-VII. 3. Fourteen neurons were continuously monitored during development of inflammation, and changes in the effectiveness of TDI were assessed by blocking the cord before and during the development of arthritis. In most neurons baseline resting activity in the intact state of the cord increased while the arthritis developed. This inflammation-evoked enhancement of resting discharges was more pronounced during periods of spinalization. Consequently, the differences between the resting discharges in the cold-blocked and the intact state were progressively enhanced in arthritis. 4. After induction of arthritis, the responses to compression of the knee joint increased in the intact state as well as during cold blocks. In 11 of 14 neurons, the differences between the responses in the spinal and intact state were progressively enlarged during the development of inflammation. A similar result was obtained for flexion of the injected knee.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Changes in Response Properties and Receptive Fields of Spinal Dorsal Horn Neurons in Rats after Surgical Incision in Hairy Skin

2005 ◽  
Vol 102 (1) ◽  
pp. 141-151 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mikito Kawamata ◽  
Masayuki Koshizaki ◽  
Steven G. Shimada ◽  
Eichi Narimatsu ◽  
Yuji Kozuka ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid ◽  
Wide Dynamic Range ◽  
Surgical Incision ◽  
Dorsal Horn Neurons ◽  
Hairy Skin ◽  
Noxious Stimuli ◽  
Made In ◽  
Wide Dynamic Range Neurons

Background Mechanical hyperalgesia and allodynia associated with chemical irritant application are mediated by spinal high-threshold (HT) as well as wide-dynamic-range neurons as a result of "central sensitization." Because the pathophysiology of pain is thought to differ depending on the type of injury and may vary between hairy and glabrous skin, the authors examined changes in properties of spinal dorsal horn neurons after surgical incisions in hairy skin of rats to obtain insights into the mechanisms of postoperative pain. Methods Withdrawal responses to punctate mechanical stimulation and gentle brushing were measured in awake rats in an area adjacent to the injured site (primary area) and in an area 2 cm from the injured site (secondary area) after 1-cm longitudinal incisions through the hairy skin, fascia, and muscle had been made in the hindquarters. In a separate study, responses of spinal wide-dynamic-range, HT, and low-threshold neurons to nonnoxious and noxious stimuli were recorded before and after similar incisions had been made in the centers of their receptive fields. Effects of spinal application of the gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor antagonist bicuculline (15 microg) on responses of HT neurons were then studied. Results Awake rats showed primary and secondary hyperalgesia to punctate mechanical stimulation 30 min after the incision and thereafter for 4 days and 1 day, respectively. Mechanical allodynia associated with brush stimulation was only seen in the primary area 30 min after the incision and thereafter for 1 day. The incision resulted in increases in activity of wide-dynamic-range neurons (receptive field sizes and responses to both innocuous and noxious stimuli). HT neurons did not respond to innocuous stimulation and showed very small increases or no changes in receptive field size and responses to noxious stimuli after the incision. However, the majority of HT neurons began to respond to innocuous stimuli after application of bicuculline (15 microg/50 microl) to the spinal cord. Conclusions The results suggest that wide-dynamic-range neurons are responsible for behavioral hyperexcitability after surgical incision but that HT neurons are not involved in the hyperexcitability, despite the fact that HT neurons are capable of responding to innocuous stimuli by reversal of gamma-aminobutyric acid-mediated inhibition.

Responses of primate spinothalamic neurons to graded and to repeated noxious heat stimuli

1979 ◽  
Vol 42 (5) ◽  
pp. 1370-1389 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. R. Kenshalo ◽  
R. B. Leonard ◽  
J. M. Chung ◽  
W. D. Willis
Keyword(s):  
Skin Temperature ◽  
Power Function ◽  
Dynamic Range ◽  
Background Activity ◽  
Receptive Fields ◽  
Peak Frequency ◽  
High Threshold ◽  
Wide Dynamic Range ◽  
Noxious Heat ◽  
Thermal Stimuli

1. The responses of primate spinothalamic tract cells innervating the glabrous skin of the foot to noxious thermal stimuli have been examined. 2. Of the 41 cells studied, 98% responded to noxious thermal stimuli. Heating the cutaneous receptive field with a series of stimuli from 35 to 43, 47, and 50 degrees C produced a graded increase in discharge rate. The responses were characterized by an onset, which occurred after the temperature change had either slowed or stopped, an acceleration in the discharge up to a peak, and then an adaptation to a new base-line level. The time constants of adaptation were faster than those reported for C polymodal nociceptors. 3. No systematic differences were found in the responses to noxious thermal stimuli of cells with wide dynamic range receptive fields and of cells with narrow dynamic range, high-threshold receptive fields. There were also no differences in the responses of cells located in the marginal zone and of cells located in the neck of the dorsal horn. 4. The relationship between peak frequency and final skin temperature with a 30 s stimulus duration can best be described by a power function with an exponent of 2.1. An increase in the stimulus duration to 120 s resulted in an increase in the exponent of the power function to 3.2. 5. Repetition of the series of 30-s heat stimuli resulted in an increase in peak frequency, total impulse count, and background activity. Repetition of stimuli having a duration of 120 s produced an increase in the peak frequency at 43 and 45 degrees C, a smaller increase at 47 degrees C, and a decrease at 50 degrees C. Background activity was increased by the lower temperature stimuli, but was decreased following higher temperature stimuli. 6. In six additional cells, the skin was heated with three consecutive presentations at each temperature level (43, 45, 47, and 50 degrees C) for 30 s. No change was observed in the peak frequencies of the responses to successive stimuli of the same intensity. However, the exponent of the power function relating the average peak frequency for the six cells to changes in skin temperature was 3.9. This exponent was larger than that seen when two series of graded heat stimuli of 120 s duration were used, indicating more sensitization despite the fact the total time of exposure to noxious heat was less. 7. A role for both high-threshold and wide dynamic range spinothalamic cells in transmitting nociceptive information to the diencephalon is postulated.

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