Biophysical Determinants of Front-Crawl Swimming at Moderate and Severe Intensities

Purpose:To conduct a biophysical analysis of the factors associated with front-crawl performance at moderate and severe swimming intensities, represented by anaerobic-threshold (vAnT) and maximal-oxygen-uptake (vV̇O2max) velocities.Methods:Ten high-level swimmers performed 2 intermittent incremental tests of 7 × 200 and 12 × 25 m (through a system of underwater push-off pads) to assess vAnT, and vV̇O2max, and power output. The 1st protocol was videotaped (3D reconstruction) for kinematic analysis to assess stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), propelling efficiency (ηP), and index of coordination (IdC). V̇O2 was measured and capillary blood samples (lactate concentrations) were collected, enabling computation of metabolic power. The 2nd protocol allowed calculating mechanical power and performance efficiency from the ratio of mechanical to metabolic power.Results:Neither vAnT nor vV̇O2max was explained by SF (0.56 ± 0.06 vs 0.68 ± 0.06 Hz), SL (2.29 ± 0.21 vs 2.06 ± 0.20 m), ηP (0.38 ± 0.02 vs 0.36± 0.03), IdC (–12.14 ± 5.24 vs –9.61 ± 5.49), or metabolic-power (1063.00 ± 122.90 vs 1338.18 ± 127.40 W) variability. vV̇O2max was explained by power to overcome drag (r = .77, P ≤ .05) and ηP (r = .72, P ≤ .05), in contrast with the nonassociation between these parameters and vAnT; both velocities were well related (r = .62, P ≤ .05).Conclusions:The biomechanical parameters, coordination, and metabolic power seemed not to be performance discriminative at either intensity. However, the increase in power to overcome drag, for the less metabolic input, should be the focus of any intervention that aims to improve performance at severe swimming intensity. This is also true for moderate intensities, as vAnT and vV˙O2max are proportional to each other.

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Validating Physiological and Biomechanical Parameters during Intermittent Swimming at Speed Corresponding to Lactate Concentration of 4 mmol·L−1

Sports ◽

10.3390/sports8020023 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 8 (2) ◽

pp. 23

Author(s):

Gavriil G. Arsoniadis ◽

Ioannis S. Nikitakis ◽

Petros G. Botonis ◽

Ioannis Malliaros ◽

Argyris G. Toubekis

Keyword(s):

Blood Lactate ◽

Perceived Exertion ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Blood Lactate Concentration ◽

Constant Speed ◽

Rating Of Perceived Exertion ◽

Training Set ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Biomechanical Parameters

Background: Physiological and biomechanical parameters obtained during testing need validation in a training setting. The purpose of this study was to compare parameters calculated by a 5 × 200-m test with those measured during an intermittent swimming training set performed at constant speed corresponding to blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol∙L−1 (V4). Methods: Twelve competitive swimmers performed a 5 × 200-m progressively increasing speed front crawl test. Blood lactate concentration (BL) was measured after each 200 m and V4 was calculated by interpolation. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL) were determined during each 200 m. Subsequently, BL, HR, SR and SL corresponding to V4 were calculated. A week later, swimmers performed a 5 × 400-m training set at constant speed corresponding to V4 and BL-5×400, HR-5×400, RPE-5×400, SR-5×400, SL-5×400 were measured. Results: BL-5×400 and RPE-5×400 were similar (p > 0.05), while HR-5×400 and SR-5×400 were increased and SL-5×400 was decreased compared to values calculated by the 5 × 200-m test (p < 0.05). Conclusion: An intermittent progressively increasing speed swimming test provides physiological information with large interindividual variability. It seems that swimmers adjust their biomechanical parameters to maintain constant speed in an aerobic endurance training set of 5 × 400-m at intensity corresponding to 4 mmol∙L−1.

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Validating Physiological and Biomechanical Parameters During Intermittent Swimming at Speed Corresponding to Lactate Concentration of 4 mmol/L

Proceedings ◽

10.3390/proceedings2019025015 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (1) ◽

pp. 15

Author(s):

Arsoniadis ◽

Nikitakis ◽

Botonis ◽

Malliaros ◽

Toubekis

Keyword(s):

Blood Lactate ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Blood Lactate Concentration ◽

Constant Speed ◽

Maximum Speed ◽

Swimming Training ◽

Training Set ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Biomechanical Parameters

AIM: progressively increasing swimming speed test (5 × 200 m) is used to calculate the speed corresponding to blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L (V4) and related physiological and biomechanical parameters. The purpose of this study was to compare the calculated by a 5 × 200-m test parameters with those obtained during an intermittent swimming training set (5 × 400-m) performed at constant speed corresponding to V4. MATERIAL & METHOD: Twelve competitive male swimmers (age, 19 ± 2 years; height, 178 ± 8 cm; body mass, 74.4 ± 10.1 kg) performed a 5 × 200-m front crawl test reaching maximum speed in the last effort. Blood lactate concentration (BL) was measured after each 200 m, and heart rate (HR), stroke rate (SR), and stroke length (SL) were determined during each 200 m. V4 was calculated by interpolation using the individual speed vs. BL, and subsequently HR, SR, SL corresponding to V4 were calculated (HR-V4, SR-V4, SL-V4). One week later, swimmers performed 5 × 400-m at constant speed corresponding to V4. During the 5 × 400-m test, BL (BL-5 × 400) was measured after the 1st, 3rd and 5th repetitions, while HR (HR-5 × 400) was recorded continuously. SR and SL were measured in each 400-m repetition, and mean values were calculated (SR-5 × 400 and SL-5 × 400). RESULTS: V4 and HR-V4 were not different from speed and HR-5 × 400 during the 5 × 400-m test (1.30 ± 0.10 vs. 1.29 ± 0.10 m/s; 160 ± 14 vs. 166 ± 13 b/min, both p > 0.05). BL-5 × 400 was not different from 4 mmol/L (4.9 ± 2.6 mmol/L, p > 0.05). SR was increased and SL was decreased during 5 × 400 m compared to the values corresponding to V4 (SR-V4, 28.9 ± 3.8 vs. SR-5 × 400, 34.5 ± 3.4 strokes/min; SL-V4, 2.38 ± 0.33 vs. SL-5 × 400, 2.25 ± 0.30 m/cycle, both p < 0.05). A Bland-and-Altman plot indicated agreement between variables obtained by the 5 × 200-m and 5 × 400-m tests but with great range of variation (bias: BL, −1.0 ± 2.6 mmol/L; HR, −7 ± 12 b/min; SR, −5.6 ± 3.3 strokes/min; SL, 0.13 ± 0.09 m/cycle). CONCLUSIONS: An intermittent, with progressively increasing speed, swimming test provides physiological information to coaches to apply during an intermittent constant-speed swimming training set at intensity corresponding to BL of 4 mmol/L with large inter-individual variability. It seems that the 5 × 200-m test does not provide valid results for the biomechanical parameters.

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Functional Role of Movement and Performance Variability: Adaptation of Front Crawl Swimmers to Competitive Swimming Constraints

Journal of Applied Biomechanics ◽

10.1123/jab.2017-0022 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 34 (1) ◽

pp. 53-64 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

David Simbaña Escobar ◽

Philippe Hellard ◽

David B. Pyne ◽

Ludovic Seifert

Keyword(s):

Coefficient Of Variation ◽

Quadratic Model ◽

Stroke Rate ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Competitive Swimming ◽

Performance Variability ◽

Group Speed ◽

And Performance

To study the variability in stroking parameters between and within laps and individuals during competitions, we compared and modeled the changes of speed, stroke rate, and stroke length in 32 top-level male and female swimmers over 4 laps (L1–L4) in 200-m freestyle events using video-derived 2-dimensional direct linear transformation. For the whole group, speed was greater in L1, with significant decreases across L2, L3, and L4 (1.80 ± 0.10 vs 1.73 ± 0.08; 1.69 ± 0.09; 1.66 ± 0.09 · s−1,P < .05). This variability was attributed to a decrease in stroke length (L2: 2.43 ± 0.19 vs L4: 2.20 ± 0.13 m,P < .05) and an increase in stroke rate (L2: 42.8 ± 2.6 vs L4: 45.4 ± 2.3 stroke · min−1,P < .05). The coefficient of variation and the biological coefficient of variation in speed were greater for male versus female (3.9 ± 0.7 vs 3.1 ± 0.7; 2.9 ± 1.0 vs 2.6 ± 0.7,P < .05) and higher in L1 versus L2 (3.9 ± 1.3 vs 3.1 ± 0.1; 2.9 ± 0.9 vs 2.3 ± 0.7,P < .05). Intra-lap speed values were best represented by a cubic (n = 38), then linear (n = 37) and quadratic model (n = 8). The cubic fit was more frequent for males (43.8%) than females (15.6%), suggesting greater capacity to generate higher acceleration after the turn. The various stroking parameters managements within lap suggest that each swimmer adapts his/her behavior to the race constraints.

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A Biophysical Analysis on the Arm Stroke Efficiency in Front Crawl Swimming: Comparing Methods and Determining the Main Performance Predictors

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph16234715 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 16 (23) ◽

pp. 4715 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Peterson Silveira ◽

Soares ◽

Zacca ◽

Alves ◽

Fernandes ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Swimming Performance ◽

Speed Ratio ◽

Metabolic Power ◽

Free Swimming ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Paddle Wheel ◽

Performance Predictors ◽

Biophysical Analysis ◽

Wheel Model ◽

Ratio Speed

Purpose: to compare different methods to assess the arm stroke efficiency (?F ), whenswimming front crawl using the arms only on the Measurement of Active Drag System (MADSystem) and in a free-swimming condition, and to identify biophysical adaptations to swimming onthe MAD System and the main biophysical predictors of maximal swimming speed in the 200 mfront crawl using the arms only (?200m). Methods: fourteen swimmers performed twice a 5 × 200 mincremental trial swimming the front crawl stroke using the arms only, once swimming freely, andonce swimming on the MAD System. The total metabolic power was assessed in both conditions.The biomechanical parameters were obtained from video analysis and force data recorded on theMAD System. The ?F was calculated using: (i) direct measures of mechanical and metabolic power(power-based method); (ii) forward speed/hand speed ratio (speed-based method), and (iii) thesimplified paddle-wheel model. Results: both methods to assess ?F on the MAD System differed (p< 0.001) from the expected values for this condition (?F = 1), with the speed-based method providingthe closest values (?F~0.96). In the free-swimming condition, the power-based (?F~0.75), speedbased(?F~0.62), and paddle-wheel (?F~0.39) efficiencies were significantly different (p < 0.001).Although all methods provided values within the limits of agreement, the speed-based methodprovided the closest values to the “actual efficiency”. The main biophysical predictors of ?200mwere included in two models: biomechanical (R2 = 0.98) and physiological (R2 = 0.98). Conclusions:our results suggest that the speed-based method provides the closest values to the “actual ?F” andconfirm that swimming performance depends on the balance of biomechanical and bioenergeticparameters

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Validating Physiological and Biomechanical Parameters during Continuous Swimming at Speed Corresponding to Lactate Threshold

Proceedings ◽

10.3390/proceedings2019025004 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (1) ◽

pp. 4

Author(s):

Gavriil G. Arsoniadis ◽

Ioannis S. Nikitakis ◽

Petros G. Botonis ◽

Ioannis Malliaros ◽

Argyris G. Toubekis

Keyword(s):

Lactate Threshold ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Blood Lactate Concentration ◽

Maximum Speed ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Mean Values ◽

Speed Test ◽

Biomechanical Parameters ◽

The Individual

AIM: The purpose of this study was to validate the physiological responses and biomechanical parameters during continuous swimming at intensity corresponding to lactate threshold previously calculated by an intermittent, progressively increasing speed test (7 × 200-m). MATERIAL & METHOD: Nine competitive male and female swimmers (age, 19.2 ± 2.3 years; height, 175.3 ± 7.5 cm; body mass, 67.6 ± 8.7 kg; VO2max, 46.5 ± 15.6 mL/kg/min) performed a 7 × 200-m front crawl test reaching maximum speed in the last effort. Blood lactate concentration (BL) and oxygen uptake (VO2) were determined after each repetition, while heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously. Stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL) were measured in each 200-m effort. The speed at lactate threshold (sLT) was calculated using the individual speed vs. BL, and subsequently BL, VO2, HR, SR, and SL corresponding to sLT were calculated (BL-sLT, VO2-sLT, HR-sLT, SR-sLT, and SL-sLT). On a subsequent day, swimmers performed 30-min continuous swimming (T30) with a constant speed corresponding to sLT. BL, V02, HR, SR, and SL (BL-T30, V02-T30, HR-T30, SR-T30, and SL-T30) were measured in the 10th and 30th minutes of the T30 test, and the mean values were used for the statistical analysis. RESULTS: The speed corresponding to sLT was not different from the speed at T30 (1.33 ± 0.08 vs. 1.32 ± 0.09 m/s, p > 0.05). There was no difference between tests in VO2 (VO2-sLT, 34.9 ± 13.3 vs. VO2-T30, 32.1 ± 11.4 ml/kg/min, p = 0.47). However, not all swimmers were able to complete T30 at sLT, and BL, HR, and SR were higher, while SL was lower at the end of T30 compared to sLT (BL-sLT, 3.47 ± 0.60 mmol/L vs. BL-T30, 5.28 ± 3.15 mmol/L, p = 0.05; HR-sLT, 163 ± 10 vs. HR-T30, 171 ± 11 b/min, p = 0.03; SR-sLT, 28.0 ± 4.0 vs. SR-T30, 33.8 ± 3.2 strokes/min, p < 0.001; SL-sLT, 2.6 ± 0.4 vs. SL-T30, 2.4 ± 0.3 m/cycles, p < 0.001). A Bland-and-Altman plot indicated agreement between 7 × 200 and T30 in BL (bias 1.8 ± 2.4 mmol/L), VO2 (bias −2.9 ± 11.4 ml/kg/min), HR (bias 10.3 ± 12 b/min), SR (bias 5.3 ± 3.4 strokes/min), and SL (bias −0.3 ± 0.2 m/cycle), but the range of physiological and biomechanical data variations was large. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous swimming at speed corresponding to lactate threshold may not show the same physiological and biomechanical responses as those predicted by a progressively increasing speed test of 7 × 200-m.

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Influence of compression sportswear on recovery and performance: A systematic review

Journal of Industrial Textiles ◽

10.1177/1528083718764912 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 48 (9) ◽

pp. 1505-1524 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

P Pérez-Soriano ◽

Á García-Roig ◽

R Sanchis-Sanchis ◽

I Aparicio

Keyword(s):

Beneficial Effect ◽

Positive Trend ◽

Sports Performance ◽

Improve Performance ◽

Compression Garments ◽

Subsequent Performance ◽

Risk Of Injury ◽

Immediate Recovery ◽

Biomechanical Parameters ◽

And Performance

Compression garments are becoming increasingly popular among sportspeople who wish to improve performance and reduce their exercise discomfort and risk of injury. However, evidence for such effects is scarce. This paper presents the evidence following a review of the literature evaluating the effects of the application of compression garments on sports performance and recovery after exercise. The literature reviewed was the result of a search on the Web of Science, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus electronic databases for studies which analysed the effect of compression garments on physiological, psychological, and biomechanical parameters during and after exercise. These search criteria were met by 40 studies. Most studies do not demonstrate any beneficial effect on performance, immediate recovery, or delay in the appearance of muscle pain. They do, however, show a positive trend towards a beneficial effect during recovery: the subsequent performance improved in five of the eight studies where it was measured, and the perception of muscle damage was reduced in five of six studies. In summary, the use of compression garments during recovery from exercise appears to be beneficial, although the factors explaining this efficacy have yet to be established. No adverse effects of the use of compression garments have been demonstrated.

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Energetic and Biomechanical Contributions for Longitudinal Performance in Master Swimmers

Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology ◽

10.3390/jfmk5020037 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (2) ◽

pp. 37

Author(s):

Daniel A. Marinho ◽

Maria I. Ferreira ◽

Tiago M. Barbosa ◽

José Vilaça-Alves ◽

Mário J. Costa ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Blood Lactate ◽

Swimming Performance ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Blood Lactate Concentration ◽

Stroke Index ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Propelling Efficiency ◽

Peak Blood ◽

Peak Blood Lactate

Background: The current study aimed to verify the changes in performance, physiological and biomechanical variables throughout a season in master swimmers. Methods: Twenty-three master swimmers (34.9 ± 7.4 years) were assessed three times during a season (December: M1, March: M2, June: M3), in indoor 25 m swimming pools. An incremental 5 × 200 m test was used to evaluate the speed at 4 mmol·L−1 of blood lactate concentration (sLT), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), peak blood lactate ([La-]peak) after the test, stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI) and propelling efficiency (ηp). The performance was assessed in the 200 m front crawl during competition. Results: Swimming performance improved between M1, M2 (2%, p = 0.03), and M3 (4%, p < 0.001). Both sLT and VO2max increased throughout the season (4% and 18%, p < 0.001, respectively) but not [La-]peak. While SF decreased 5%, SL, SI and ηp increased 5%, 7%, and 6% (p < 0.001) from M1 to M3. Conclusions: Master swimmers improved significantly in their 200 m front crawl performance over a season, with decreased SF, and increased SL, ηp and SI. Despite the improvement in energetic variables, the change in performance seemed to be more dependent on technical than energetic factors.

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Interplay of Biomechanical, Energetic, Coordinative, and Muscular Factors in a 200 m Front Crawl Swim

BioMed Research International ◽

10.1155/2013/897232 ◽

2013 ◽

Vol 2013 ◽

pp. 1-12 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Pedro Figueiredo ◽

David R. Pendergast ◽

João Paulo Vilas-Boas ◽

Ricardo J. Fernandes

Keyword(s):

Linear Regression Analysis ◽

Muscular Activity ◽

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis ◽

Total Energy Expenditure ◽

Velocity Variation ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Task Constraints ◽

Relative Contribution ◽

Propelling Efficiency

This study aimed to determine the relative contribution of selected biomechanical, energetic, coordinative, and muscular factors for the 200 m front crawl and each of its four laps. Ten swimmers performed a 200 m front crawl swim, as well as 50, 100, and 150 m at the 200 m pace. Biomechanical, energetic, coordinative, and muscular factors were assessed during the 200 m swim. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify the weight of the factors to the performance. For each lap, the contributions to the 200 m performance were 17.6, 21.1, 18.4, and 7.6% for stroke length, 16.1, 18.7, 32.1, and 3.2% for stroke rate, 11.2, 13.2, 6.8, and 5.7% for intracycle velocity variation inx, 9.7, 7.5, 1.3, and 5.4% for intracycle velocity variation iny, 17.8, 10.5, 2.0, and 6.4% for propelling efficiency, 4.5, 5.8, 10.9, and 23.7% for total energy expenditure, 10.1, 5.1, 8.3, and 23.7% for interarm coordination, 9.0, 6.2, 8.5, and 5.5% for muscular activity amplitude, and 3.9, 11.9, 11.8, and 18.7% for muscular frequency). The relative contribution of the factors was closely related to the task constraints, especially fatigue, as the major changes occurred from the first to the last lap.

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Monitoring Changes Over a Training Macrocycle in Regional Age‐Group Swimmers

Journal of Human Kinetics ◽

10.2478/hukin-2019-0014 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 69 (1) ◽

pp. 213-223

Author(s):

Guilherme Tucher ◽

Flávio Antônio de Souza Castro ◽

Nuno Domingos Garrido ◽

Ricardo Jorge Fernandes

Keyword(s):

Lactate Concentration ◽

Stroke Index ◽

Maximal Velocity ◽

Age Group ◽

Rest Interval ◽

Swimming Training ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Performance Variables ◽

And Performance

Abstract Our aim was to analyze physiological, kinematical and performance changes induced by swimming training in regional age‐group athletes. Subjects (15.7 ± 2.2 years old) performed a 4 x 50‐m front‐crawl test at maximal velocity (10 s rest interval) in weeks 2, 4, 9 and 12 of a 15‐week macrocycle. Descriptive statistics were used and the percentage of change and smallest worthwhile change (moderate, 0.6‐1.2, and large, > 1.2) were measured. Lactate concentration in the third, seventh and twelfth minute of recovery decreased significantly between weeks 2‐9 (14.1, 15.7 and 17.6%) and increased between weeks 9‐12 (18.2, 18.6 and 19.8%), with the HR presenting only trivial variations during the training period. Stroke length showed a large decrease in the first 50‐m trial between weeks 4‐9 (6.2%) and a large increase between weeks 9‐12 (3.1%). The stroke rate (in all 50‐m trials) increased significantly between weeks 4‐9 (3‐ 7%) and the stroke index had a moderate to large increase in the first and third 50‐m trial (3.6 and 7.1%, respectively) between weeks 9‐12. The overall time decreased by 1.1% between weeks 2‐12, being more evident after week 4. We concluded that physiological, kinematical and performance variables were affected by the period of training in regional age‐group swimmers.

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Verifying Physiological and Biomechanical Parameters during Continuous Swimming at Speed Corresponding to Lactate Threshold

Sports ◽

10.3390/sports8070095 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 8 (7) ◽

pp. 95

Author(s):

Gavriil G. Arsoniadis ◽

Ioannis S. Nikitakis ◽

Petros G. Botonis ◽

Ioannis Malliaros ◽

Argyris G. Toubekis

Keyword(s):

Lactate Threshold ◽

Physiological Responses ◽

Lactate Concentration ◽

Blood Lactate Concentration ◽

Front Crawl ◽

Stroke Length ◽

Speed Test ◽

Biomechanical Responses ◽

Biomechanical Parameters ◽

Competitive Swimmers

The purpose of this study was to verify the physiological responses and biomechanical parameters measured during 30 min of continuous swimming (T30) at intensity corresponding to lactate threshold previously calculated by an intermittent progressively increasing speed test (7 × 200 m). Fourteen competitive swimmers (18.0 (2.5) years, 67.5 (8.8) kg, 174.5 (7.7) cm) performed a 7 × 200 m front crawl test. Blood lactate concentration (BL) and oxygen uptake (VO2) were determined after each 200 m repetition, while heart rate (HR), arm-stroke rate (SR), and arm-stroke length (SL) were measured during each 200 m repetition. Using the speed vs. lactate concentration curve, the speed at lactate threshold (sLT) and parameters corresponding to sLT were calculated (BL-sLT, VO2-sLT, HR-sLT, SR-sLT, and SL-sLT). In the following day, a T30 corresponding to sLT was performed and BL-T30, VO2-T30, HR-T30, SR-T30, and SL-T30 were measured after the 10th and 30th minute, and average values were used for comparison. VO2-sLT was no different compared to VO2-T30 (p > 0.05). BL-T30, HR-T30, and SR-T30 were higher, while SL-T30 was lower compared to BL-sLT, HR-sLT, SR-sLT, and SL-sLT (p < 0.05). Continuous swimming at speed corresponding to lactate threshold may not show the same physiological and biomechanical responses as those calculated by a progressively increasing speed test of 7 × 200 m.

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