Ancient DNA shows domestic horses were introduced in the southern Caucasus and Anatolia during the Bronze Age

Despite the important roles that horses have played in human history, particularly in the spread of languages and cultures, and correspondingly intensive research on this topic, the origin of domestic horses remains elusive. Several domestication centers have been hypothesized, but most of these have been invalidated through recent paleogenetic studies. Anatolia is a region with an extended history of horse exploitation that has been considered a candidate for the origins of domestic horses but has never been subject to detailed investigation. Our paleogenetic study of pre- and protohistoric horses in Anatolia and the Caucasus, based on a diachronic sample from the early Neolithic to the Iron Age (~8000 to ~1000 BCE) that encompasses the presumed transition from wild to domestic horses (4000 to 3000 BCE), shows the rapid and large-scale introduction of domestic horses at the end of the third millennium BCE. Thus, our results argue strongly against autochthonous independent domestication of horses in Anatolia.

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HISTORY OF HORSE DOMESTICATION

Animal Genetic Resources Information ◽

10.1017/s1014233900004089 ◽

1987 ◽

Vol 6 ◽

pp. 29-34

Author(s):

SàNdor Bokonyi

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Western Europe ◽

Neolithic Period ◽

East Europe ◽

Domestic Horses ◽

History Of ◽

Western Half ◽

Horse Domestication ◽

The Bronze Age

SUMMARYThe wild ancestor of the present day domestic horse was equus ferus Woddaert which included two distinct sub-species - the tarpan and the taki or the Ptzevalsky horse. The tarpan is the main ancestor of the- Present day domestic type. Its domestication irst started in East Europe in the Neolithic period from where it spread in different directions, moving in successive waves to the Carpathian Basin and Moravia in the west, Caucasus in the southeast and Mesopotamia in the Near East, finally reaching western Europe in the Bronze Age.The early domestic horses were small compared to present day animals, measuring only 137 cm at the withers. They were chiefly used to provide mobile power - either draught or riding. Later, during the Iron Age, the Scythians brought these eastern horses to Austria, Italy and Greece, where they were much in demand for their superior power and size, a result of conscious breeding by the Scythians. In contrast, the horses indigenous to the western half of Europe, represented by the Celtic horse, were smaller and slender. These were later improved by crossing with the eastern Scythian horses. From the Greeks, the eastern horses reached the Romans and contributed to the development of the Roman horse.,

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Household Economy, Long-Term Change, and Social Transformation: The Bronze Age Political Economy of Northwestern Europe

Nature and Culture ◽

10.3167/nc.2007.020204 ◽

2007 ◽

Vol 2 (2) ◽

pp. 161-175 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Kristian Kristiansen

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Social Transformation ◽

Environmental Changes ◽

Term Change ◽

History Of Vegetation ◽

History Of ◽

Triggering Factor ◽

The Bronze Age

In this article I examine how long-term economic strategies in the Bronze Age of northern Europe between 2300 and 500 BCE transformed the environment and thus created and imposed new ecological constraints that finally led to a major social transformation and a "dark age" that became the start of the new long-term cycle of the Iron Age. During the last 30 years hundreds of well-excavated farmsteads and houses from south Scandinavia have made it possible to reconstruct the size and the structure of settlement and individual households through time. During the same period numerous pollen diagrams have established the history of vegetation and environmental changes. I will therefore use the size of individual households or farmsteads as a parameter of economic strength, and to this I add the role of metal as a triggering factor in the economy, especially after 1700 BCE when a full-scale bronze technology was adopted and after 500 BCE when it was replaced by iron as the dominant metal. A major theoretical concern is the relationships between micro- and macroeconomic changes and how they articulated in economic practices. Finally the nature of the "dark age" during the beginning of the Iron Age will be discussed, referring to Sing Chew's use of the concept (Chew 2006).

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From the History of Shamanism: Images of Shamanic Assistant Spirits on the Petroglyphs of the Upper Amur and Aldan (Article Two)

10.22250/2072-8662.2019.4.65-72 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 65-72

Author(s):

Tatyana Yu. Sem ◽

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Early Iron Age ◽

History Of ◽

Sacrificial Ritual ◽

Cultural Genesis ◽

The Universe ◽

The Bronze Age

The article deals with the history of shamanism and interpret the images on the petroglyphs of the Upper Amur, Olekma and Aldan rivers, dating back to 2000–1000 BC. Important role in the petroglyphs is played by the images of the Supreme gods and forest spirits that were accessed by shamans and shamanic spirit-helpers. The opposition of light and dark spirits-assistants in the form of deer and bear riders symbolizing the two worlds of the universe – the upper and lower ones – stands out among the latter. The first rider was accompanied by mushroom-shaped spirits, the second one – by hammer-shaped, sharp-headed spirits. The first spirits were associated with the mushroom ritual drink from used during the ritual to communicate with the gods, and the second ones – with farriery. Images of one-legged and two-legged hunchbacks and mother goddesses were widespread as well. The scene of making a sacrifice to the spirits highlights two shamanic guardian spirits: the first is depicted with a radiant head; the second is a sharp-headed one, having similarities with main shamanic patron spirits of the Tungus-Manchus – Buchu and Manga. Images of spirits-assistants of shamans in the form of one-legged hunchbacks, deer and bear riders, mushroom idols and mother goddesses depicted in the petroglyphs of the Upper Amur and Aldan rivers also have direct correspondences in shamanism of Tungus-Manchu peoples (Evenks, Nanais, Udege) that testifies to participation of ancient Upper Amur tribes in ethnocultural genesis of Tungus-Manchurians. Some plots of the sacrificial ritual are genetically related to the Okunev culture, probably also being genetic and cultural impulses for the Upper Amur population of the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age. The opposition of the spirits of the light and dark sides of the sky has analogues in the culture of the Yakuts and Buryats. Blacksmith ongons as the assistant spirits of the shamans are found in the Buryat culture. This indicates the participation of the Upper Amur tribes of the Bronze Age in the cultural genesis of some peoples of Siberia

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Excavations at South Cadbury Castle, 1967: A Summary Report

The Antiquaries Journal ◽

10.1017/s0003581500034351 ◽

1968 ◽

Vol 48 (1) ◽

pp. 6-17 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Leslie Alcock

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Great Depth ◽

Late Bronze Age ◽

Summary Report ◽

Early Neolithic ◽

The Third ◽

Stone Wall ◽

History Of ◽

The Hill

The situation, character, and antiquarian history of South Cadbury Castle, Somerset, have already been described (Alcock (1967a); (1967b)). A reconnaissance excavation in 1966 hinted that occupation of the hilltop had begun in the Early Neolithic, and after a hiatus had been resumed sometime in the Late Bronze Age. It demonstrated that from early in the pre-Roman Iron Age there was a rich and intensive occupation, during which the defences were probably built. This appeared to have been ended by a sack at the hands of the Roman invaders c. A.D. 45. Late Roman pottery, metalwork, and coins showed that activity was renewed in the third-fourth centuries A.D. Imported pottery of well-known forms proved that the site was reused in the fifth—sixth centuries. Finally, it was refortified with a mortared stone wall as a Late Saxon burh. The reconnaissance also showed that on top of the hill (fig. 1, c) rock-cut pits and post-holes were readily discernible under the turf; that on the slopes within the defences (fig. 1, B) traces of buildings of various dates had survived many centuries of ploughing; and that in the rear of the inner rampart (fig. 1, A), a great depth of hill-wash and plough-soil overlay stratified levels of the Iron Age.

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Ancient Xinjiang mitogenomes reveal intense admixture with high genetic diversity

Science Advances ◽

10.1126/sciadv.abd6690 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 7 (14) ◽

pp. eabd6690

Author(s):

Wenjun Wang ◽

Manyu Ding ◽

Jacob D. Gardner ◽

Yongqiang Wang ◽

Bo Miao ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Genetic Admixture ◽

Archaeological Sites ◽

High Genetic Diversity ◽

Genetic History ◽

Asian Populations ◽

History Of ◽

Genetic Continuity ◽

The Bronze Age

Xinjiang is a key region in northwestern China, connecting East and West Eurasian populations and cultures for thousands of years. To understand the genetic history of Xinjiang, we sequenced 237 complete ancient human mitochondrial genomes from the Bronze Age through Historical Era (41 archaeological sites). Overall, the Bronze Age Xinjiang populations show high diversity and regional genetic affinities with Steppe and northeastern Asian populations along with a deep ancient Siberian connection for the Tarim Basin Xiaohe individuals. In the Iron Age, in general, Steppe-related and northeastern Asian admixture intensified, with North and East Xinjiang populations showing more affinity with northeastern Asians and South Xinjiang populations showing more affinity with Central Asians. The genetic structure observed in the Historical Era of Xinjiang is similar to that in the Iron Age, demonstrating genetic continuity since the Iron Age with some additional genetic admixture with populations surrounding the Xinjiang region.

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From the History of Shamanism: Images of Shamans and Shamanistic Rituals on the Petroglyphs of the Upper Amur, Olekma, and Aldan Rivers (article one)

10.22250/2072-8662.2019.3.53-61 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 53-61

Author(s):

Tatyana Yu. Sem ◽

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Comparative Research ◽

Semantic Analysis ◽

18Th Century ◽

European Population ◽

The World ◽

History Of ◽

Cultural Genesis ◽

The Bronze Age

The article deals with the ancient roots of shamanism according to the materials of the petroglyphs of the Upper Amur, Aldan and Olekma of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age (2000–1000 BC) with the ethnographic parallels. In order to analyze the material, the author uses a set of methods – diachronic archaeological and ethnographic comparative research, iconographic and semantic analysis. According to the petroglyphs of the 11 images of shamans of the specified period, and two of the 18th century, describing the personality of shamans with ritual paraphernalia – a suit, a tambourine, a mallet, a baton, masks and a headdress. Two images in costumes were also dressed in masks of the supreme gods of heaven and thunder. All shaman figures are painted in the process of ritual actions. There are hunting rituals, ritual of receiving the heavenly grace of the calendar type, circular dances associated with the cult of the sun at the new year’s holiday, the ritual of seeing the soul into the world of the dead and the shaman's initial ritual of sacrifice to the spirits to strengthen the shaman's power depicted among the shamanistic rituals on the petroglyphs. The vast majority of the considered images of shamans with attributes and costumes, shamanistic rituals depicted in the petroglyphs of the Upper Amur and Aldan rivers have direct correspondences in the shamanism of the Tungus-Manchu peoples (Evenki, Nanai, Udege), which indicates a possible direction of cultural genesis in the region. In addition, some of the images have parallels with the spiritual culture of the ancient Indo-Europeans and Turkic-Mongols. Some images – radiant headdress, figures of thunderbolts – have analogies among the ancient Indo-European population of Karakol and Pribaikalye. Separate stories are genetically related to the Okunevites. Shamanic tambourines with vertical rungs are typical for the Altai and Tuvinians and were found in the Yakut group of Evenks.

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English Landscapes and Identities

10.1093/oso/9780198870623.001.0001 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Chris Gosden ◽

Chris Green ◽

Anwen Cooper ◽

Miranda Creswell ◽

Victoria Donnelly ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Large Scale ◽

Sources Of Information ◽

Archaeological Work ◽

History Of ◽

Norman Invasion ◽

The 1960S ◽

The Bronze Age

The project on which the book was based synthesized all the major available sources of information on English archaeology for the period from 1500 BC to AD 1086, providing an overview of the history of the English landscape from the Bronze Age to the Norman invasion. The result is the first account of the English landscape over a crucial 2500-year period when people created many of the features still visible today. It also provides a celebration of many centuries of archaeological work, especially the intensive investigations that have taken place since the 1960s, when frequent large-scale work has transformed our understanding of England’s past.

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Highland fortress-polities and their settlement systems in the southern Caucasus

Antiquity ◽

10.1017/s0003598x00050675 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 88 (341) ◽

pp. 757-774 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Emily Hammer

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Mountainous Terrain ◽

Trade Routes ◽

Near Eastern ◽

Settlement Systems ◽

The Core ◽

Strategic Trade ◽

Southern Caucasus ◽

The Bronze Age

Recent survey work in western Azerbaijan has revealed that hilltop fortresses of the Bronze Age and Iron Age may have been parts of larger walled complexes and could have functioned as the urban centres of small independent polities. On the Şərur Plain long lengths of stone wall link the major fortress Oğlanqala it to its smaller neighbour Qızqala 1, with evidence of a substantial settlement on the lower ground between the two. The southern Caucasus lies beyond the core area of Near Eastern states but these new discoveries suggest that major centres of power arose here, controlling both the fertile plains and strategic trade routes through mountainous terrain.

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A 5th CenturybcIron Age Chariot Burial from Newbridge, Edinburgh

Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society ◽

10.1017/s0079497x0000044x ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 76 ◽

pp. 31-74 ◽

Cited By ~ 9

Author(s):

Stephen Carter ◽

Fraser Hunter ◽

Andrea Smith ◽

Mhairi Hastie ◽

Steven Lancaster ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Iron Age ◽

Fifth Century ◽

Burial Mound ◽

Radiocarbon Dates ◽

Burial Practices ◽

Construction Techniques ◽

History Of ◽

National Museums ◽

The Bronze Age

The remains of the first Iron Age chariot burial in Britain outside Yorkshire were discovered during the winter of 2000–1, near the Bronze Age burial mound of Huly Hill, at Newbridge, Edinburgh. Excavated by Headland Archaeology (UK) Ltd with the assistance of the National Museums Scotland, the chariot proved unique beyond just its burial location. The Newbridge chariot was buried intact, a method consistent with the burial practices of Continental Europe rather than Yorkshire, where they were predominantly buried disassembled. Detailed post-excavation analysis revealed a history of repair and reuse, and construction techniques that indicate links with the chariot building traditions of both Yorkshire and Continental Europe. Fifth centurybcradiocarbon dates for the burial place it firmly within La Tène A, consistent with its similarities to European examples and indicating that it pre-dates the known Yorkshire examples. This indicates the emergence of a British tradition of chariot construction by this time, familiar with Continental habits and technology but distinctively different in such areas as wheel construction and suspension fittings. Based on the findings, a reconstruction of the chariot was built for display in the National Museums Scotland, providing an opportunity further to understand and confirm the construction techniques observed or hypothesised during excavation.

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The prehistoric human impact on slope development at the archaeological site in Smólsk (Kuyavian Lakeland)

Bulletin of Geography Physical Geography Series ◽

10.1515/bgeo-2015-0009 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 8 (1) ◽

pp. 107-122 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Piotr Kittel

Keyword(s):

Bronze Age ◽

Human Impact ◽

Iron Age ◽

Large Scale ◽

Archaeological Site ◽

Field Work ◽

Archaeological Research ◽

Buried Soils ◽

Slope Deposits ◽

The Bronze Age

AbstractPeriods of intense human impact on the relief and lithology of the area of the Smólsk site were recorded during geoarchaeological research accompanying archaeological field work. The phases of occupation of the area are known in detail from the results of the large-scale archaeological research of the site. The slope deposits with buried soils were recorded at the site area and researched in detail with the use of sedimentological, geochemical and micromorphological analyses. Beside geochronological deterioration, the chronology of the artefacts found in layers played an important role in the strict recognition of the age of deposits. The lower part of the studied slope cover is constituted by deluvium and the upper part by tillage diamicton. The origin and the development of the slope deposits are correlated with the phases of an intense prehistoric human impact as defined by the archaeological research. Four main phases of acceleration of slope processes were documented at the site and date to the Early Neolithic, the Middle Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age.

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