scholarly journals Indoor Mold, Toxigenic Fungi, and Stachybotrys chartarum: Infectious Disease Perspective

2003 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
pp. 144-172 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. M. Kuhn ◽  
M. A. Ghannoum
Keyword(s):  
Human Disease ◽  
Pulmonary Hemorrhage ◽  
Severe Illness ◽  
Stachybotrys Chartarum ◽  
Indoor Environments ◽  
Human Pathogens ◽  
Toxigenic Fungi ◽  
Indoor Mold ◽  
Disease Associations ◽  
Mold Exposure

SUMMARY Damp buildings often have a moldy smell or obvious mold growth; some molds are human pathogens. This has caused concern regarding health effects of moldy indoor environments and has resulted in many studies of moisture- and mold-damaged buildings. Recently, there have been reports of severe illness as a result of indoor mold exposure, particularly due to Stachybotrys chartarum. While many authors describe a direct relationship between fungal contamination and illness, close examination of the literature reveals a confusing picture. Here, we review the evidence regarding indoor mold exposure and mycotoxicosis, with an emphasis on S. chartarum. We also examine possible end-organ effects, including pulmonary, immunologic, neurologic, and oncologic disorders. We discuss the Cleveland infant idiopathic pulmonary hemorrhage reports in detail, since they provided important impetus for concerns about Stachybotrys. Some valid concerns exist regarding the relationship between indoor mold exposure and human disease. Review of the literature reveals certain fungus-disease associations in humans, including ergotism (Claviceps species), alimentary toxic aleukia (Fusarium), and liver disease (Aspergillys). While many papers suggest a similar relationship between Stachybotrys and human disease, the studies nearly uniformly suffer from significant methodological flaws, making their findings inconclusive. As a result, we have not found well-substantiated supportive evidence of serious illness due to Stachybotrys exposure in the contemporary environment. To address issues of indoor mold-related illness, there is an urgent need for studies using objective markers of illness, relevant animal models, proper epidemiologic techniques, and examination of confounding factors.

scholarly journals Testing the Toxicity of Stachybotrys chartarum in Indoor Environments—A Case Study

Energies ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 14 (6) ◽  
pp. 1602
Author(s):  
Marlena Piontek ◽  
Katarzyna Łuszczyńska
Keyword(s):  
Health Concern ◽  
Major Constituent ◽  
Stachybotrys Chartarum ◽  
Malt Extract ◽  
Indoor Environments ◽  
Class Iii ◽  
Potential Health ◽  
Dugesia Tigrina ◽  
Ecotoxicological Tests ◽  
Interior Walls

Infestation of interior walls of buildings with fungal mould is a reason for health concern which is exacerbated in energy-efficient buildings that limit air circulation. Both mycological and mycotoxicological studies are needed to determine the potential health hazards to residents. In this paper, a rare case of the occurrence of Stachybotrys chartarum in an apartment building in the Lubuskie Province in Poland has been described. Isolated as the major constituent of a mixed mycobiota, its specific health relevance still needs to be carefully analyzed as its biochemical aptitude for the synthesis of mycotoxins may be expressed at different levels. Therefore, ecotoxicological tests were performed using two bioindicators: Dugesia tigrina Girard and Daphnia magna Straus. D. tigrina was used for the first time to examine the toxicity of S. chartarum. The ecotoxicological tests showed that the analyzed strain belonged to the third and fourth toxicity classes according to Liebmann’s classification. The strain of S. chartarum was moderately toxic on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) as a culture medium (toxicity class III), and slightly toxic on Malt Extract Agar (MEA) (toxicity class IV). Toxicity was additionally tested by instrumental analytical methods (LC-MS/MS). This method allowed for the identification of 13 metabolites (five metabolites reported for Stachybotrys and eight for unspecific metabolites). Spirocyclic drimanes were detected in considerable quantities (ng/g); a higher concentration was observed for stachybotryamide (109,000 on PDA and 62,500 on MEA) and lower for stachybotrylactam (27,100 on PDA and 46,300 on MEA). Both may explain the result observed through the bioindicators. Highly toxic compounds such as satratoxins were not found in the sample. This confirms the applicability of the two bioindicators, which also show mutual compatibility, as suitable tools to assess the toxicity of moulds.

scholarly journals Detection of Airborne Stachybotrys chartarum Macrocyclic Trichothecene Mycotoxins in the Indoor Environment

2005 ◽  
Vol 71 (11) ◽  
pp. 7376-7388 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. L. Brasel ◽  
J. M. Martin ◽  
C. G. Carriker ◽  
S. C. Wilson ◽  
D. C. Straus
Keyword(s):  
Indoor Air ◽  
High Specificity ◽  
High Volume ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Stachybotrys Chartarum ◽  
Indoor Environments ◽  
Fel D 1 ◽  
History Of ◽  
Can F 1 ◽  
Macrocyclic Trichothecene

ABSTRACT The existence of airborne mycotoxins in mold-contaminated buildings has long been hypothesized to be a potential occupant health risk. However, little work has been done to demonstrate the presence of these compounds in such environments. The presence of airborne macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins in indoor environments with known Stachybotrys chartarum contamination was therefore investigated. In seven buildings, air was collected using a high-volume liquid impaction bioaerosol sampler (SpinCon PAS 450-10) under static or disturbed conditions. An additional building was sampled using an Andersen GPS-1 PUF sampler modified to separate and collect particulates smaller than conidia. Four control buildings (i.e., no detectable S. chartarum growth or history of water damage) and outdoor air were also tested. Samples were analyzed using a macrocyclic trichothecene-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). ELISA specificity was tested using phosphate-buffered saline extracts of the fungal genera Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Memnoniella, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Trichoderma, five Stachybotrys strains, and the indoor air allergens Can f 1, Der p 1, and Fel d 1. For test buildings, the results showed that detectable toxin concentrations increased with the sampling time and short periods of air disturbance. Trichothecene values ranged from <10 to >1,300 pg/m3 of sampled air. The control environments demonstrated statistically significantly (P < 0.001) lower levels of airborne trichothecenes. ELISA specificity experiments demonstrated a high specificity for the trichothecene-producing strain of S. chartarum. Our data indicate that airborne macrocyclic trichothecenes can exist in Stachybotrys-contaminated buildings, and this should be taken into consideration in future indoor air quality investigations.

Risk from Inhaled Mycotoxins in Indoor Office and Residential Environments

2004 ◽  
Vol 23 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-10 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bruce J. Kelman ◽  
Coreen A. Robbins ◽  
Lonie J. Swenson ◽  
Bryan D. Hardin
Keyword(s):  
Health Effects ◽  
Inhalation Exposure ◽  
Continuous Exposure ◽  
Indoor Environments ◽  
High Concentration ◽  
Epidemiologic Evidence ◽  
Residential Environments ◽  
Mold Exposure ◽  
Office Environments ◽  
Human Health Effects

Mycotoxins are known to produce veterinary and human diseases when consumed with contaminated foods. Mycotoxins have also been proposed to cause adverse human health effects after inhalation exposure to mold in indoor residential, school, and office environments. Epidemiologic evidence has been inadequate to establish a causal relationship between indoor mold and nonallergic, toxigenic health effects. In this article, the authors model a maximum possible dose of mycotoxins that could be inhaled in 24 h of continuous exposure to a high concentration of mold spores containing the maximum reported concentration of aflatoxins B1 and B2, satratoxins G and H, fumitremorgens B and C, verruculogen, and trichoverrols A and B. These calculated doses are compared to effects data for the same mycotoxins. None of the maximum doses modeled were sufficiently high to cause any adverse effect. The model illustrates the inefficiency of delivery of mycotoxins via inhalation of mold spores, and suggests that the lack of association between mold exposure and mycotoxicoses in indoor environments is due to a requirement for extremely high airborne spore levels and extended periods of exposure to elicit a response. This model is further evidence that human mycotoxicoses are implausible following inhalation exposure to mycotoxins in mold-contaminated home, school, or office environments.

Adverse health effects of indoor mold exposure

2006 ◽  
Vol 118 (3) ◽  
pp. 763-763 ◽  
Author(s):  
A LIEBERMAN ◽  
W REA ◽  
L CURTIS
Keyword(s):  
Health Effects ◽  
Adverse Health Effects ◽  
Adverse Health ◽  
Indoor Mold ◽  
Mold Exposure

scholarly journals Initial Characterization of the Hemolysin Stachylysin from Stachybotrys chartarum

2001 ◽  
Vol 69 (2) ◽  
pp. 912-916 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen J. Vesper ◽  
Matthew L. Magnuson ◽  
Dorr G. Dearborn ◽  
Iwona Yike ◽  
Richard A. Haugland
Keyword(s):  
Sheep Erythrocyte ◽  
Active Form ◽  
Pulmonary Hemorrhage ◽  
Erythrocyte Membranes ◽  
Stachybotrys Chartarum ◽  
Ionization Time ◽  
Flight Mass Spectrometry ◽  
Initial Characterization ◽  
Toxigenic Fungus

ABSTRACT Stachybotrys chartarum is a toxigenic fungus that has been associated with human health concerns, including pulmonary hemorrhage and hemosiderosis. This fungus produces a hemolysin, stachylysin, which in its apparent monomeric form has a molecular mass of 11,920 Da as determined by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization–time of flight mass spectrometry. However, it appears to form polydispersed aggregates, which confounds understanding of the actual hemolytically active form. Exhaustive dialysis or heat treatment at 60°C for 30 min inactivated stachylysin. Stachylysin is composed of about 40% nonpolar amino acids and contains two cysteine residues. Purified stachylysin required more than 6 h to begin lysing sheep erythrocytes, but by 48 h, lysis was complete. Stachylysin also formed pores in sheep erythrocyte membranes.

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